Author: Wang Haichen

After the outbreak of the First World War, the major imperialist countries in Europe were involved in the wars one after another, and they had no time to look eastward, and temporarily relaxed their aggression against the East. Japan seized the opportunity to launch a diplomatic offensive against China. In January 1915, Japan proposed to Yuan Shikai the "Twenty-one Articles" aimed at destroying China, and China and Japan made repeated negotiations. On May 25, Japan forced Yuan Shikai's government to sign a series of treaties and exchange of letters. Regarding the issue of Northeast China, the treaties signed and the exchange?? "Treaty Concerning South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on the Period of Settlement in South Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on Matters Concerning the Opening of Ancient Ports in Eastern Inner Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on Matters Concerning Mining in South Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on Matters Concerning the Taxation of the Ancient Railway in Eastern South Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on Matters Concerning the Employment of Consultants in South Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on the Interpretation of Commercial Leases in South Manchuria", "Exchange of Notes on the Taxation of the Liaison Police Act in Eastern South Manchuria". Among the above-mentioned treaties and exchange of letters, the "Treaty on South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia" is the most important, which is a further development of Japan's mainland policy since the Sino-Japanese War, and is a concrete embodiment of Japan's "Manchuria" in the "21 Articles". For this, beggars? Japanese imperialism waged various struggles, including Zhang Zuolin, the leader of the Feng warlords. According to the statistics of Japanese scholars, Zhang issued more than 40 directives to resist the "21 Articles" during his administration1, and achieved certain results. Because of this, some scholars have commented that before Zhang Zuolin's death, whether "the 21 articles from the end are equal to waste paper" or not "equal to waste paper" needs to be further studied, but the contradictions and conflicts between Zhang Zuolin's "21 Articles" and Japanese imperialism during his reign are worthy of attention. Therefore, the author intends to discuss this issue without being superficial, so as to teach colleagues in the field of history.

He repeatedly telegraphed to Beijing, urging the central government to make strong representations

Japan forced Yuan Shikai to accept the "21 Articles" to dispel terrorism, and the whole country was angry, and the anti-Japanese sentiment in the three eastern provinces became even higher. Under these circumstances, the Beiyang government consulted the opinions of the three eastern provinces on Sino-Japanese negotiations, and the governor of the three eastern provinces presided over a meeting of officers in Xiluan, and adopted a decision to oppose the exclusion of the Japanese and sent a telegram to the central authorities hoping for a satisfactory settlement of the Sino-Japanese negotiations. At the time? The commander of the 17th Division, "Zhang Zuolin, expressed strong opposition to and rejected the resolution of the officers' meeting, and did not participate in the ranks of the main peace faction." And sent a telegram to the Beiyang government: "Sino-Japanese negotiations must not be compromised in the slightest, if the negotiations break down." He is willing to lead the whole division to a decisive battle and expel the Japanese invaders, otherwise he will die and die for the country. "After the signing of the "21st Article", due to the karma? Revolt and? The opposition to this monopoly of China was not immediately enforced. In the second year of the signing of the "Twenty-Article", Yuan Shikai died of fear in the national condemnation, and it was also in this year that Zhang Zuolin served as the overseer of Fengtian and the governor. As soon as he took office, he was faced with a difficult diplomatic problem, that is, he was not satisfied with Japan. pressure, what is the attitude of the relevant issues of fulfilling the "21 Articles" in Northeast China, and how to deal with Japan's aggressive diplomatic offensive. Zhang Zuolin has made the following efforts in this regard.

1. On the issue of the South Manchuria region

With regard to the South Manchuria region, most historical books hold that after the Russo-Japanese War, Japan and Russia signed the Portsmouth Peace Treaty under the mediation of the United States, and the signing of this treaty ,?? Japan and Russia completed the division of the Northeast, that is, Changchun as the boundary into "South Manchuria" and "North Manchuria", North Manchuria is Russia's sphere of influence, and South Manchuria is Japan's sphere of influence. In fact, "South Manchuria" and "North Manchuria" as "spheres of influence" are not the same geographical concepts as we usually understand them. As far as the sphere of influence was concerned, the area west of the Liao River did not belong to "South Manchuria" at that time, and Japan used the trick of obscuring the concept of sphere of influence with geographical concepts to expand its aggressive plans in the northeast. Zhang Zuofei fought vigilantly.

After the signing of the "21st Article", Japan extended the area of the so-called "South Manchuria" in the treaty to the area west of the Liao River. On the one hand, Japan frequently exerted diplomatic pressure on the Beiyang government, and on the other hand, it encouraged Japanese businessmen to move to the western Liaoning region in order to create a fait accompli. In 1916, "in Jinxian, Suizhong, Beizhen and other counties in western Liaoning, Japanese businessmen came to rent houses one after another, especially in Jinxian County." On the one hand, Zhang Zuolin "ordered the governor of the county to properly discourage him from leaving the country"), and on the other hand, he telegraphed to the Beiyang government, asking for reasonable representations with Japan. Zhang said in the telegram: "Feng Province believes that those who belong to South Manchuria, which are 31 counties such as Kaiyuan, are determined not to be South Manchurians, but those who are not considered to be Liaoxi?" Ten counties, including Montenegro, Tai'an, Jinxian, Jinxi, Beizhen, Xingcheng, Suizhong, Yixian and Yanshan. Check a year ago, among the ten prefectures, Japan? The rate of people who go to Jinxian is the most,?? The rest of the counties also came one after another, and they did not believe it, and the negotiations did not return; Should? The police and taxation of obedience are inconvenient to implement because the area has not been resolved. For a long time, I will see ten counties. Although there is no name for mixed living, there is already a mixed living in fact. The loss of rights will become worse and worse, and it will not be easy to recover. Zhang urged the Ministry of Foreign Affairs: "The governor of this province has repeatedly observed it, but he has secretly asked most of the ministers to investigate the previous case, promptly submit it to the Japanese envoy for discussion, and adhere to the original opinion." Solve it as soon as possible, and Liaoning West and other counties will not be fishy and full of South Man. ”。

During the negotiations, the Japanese side insisted that the western Liaoning region belonged to "South Manchuria" and used the excuse that the "Exchange of Notes on Mining Matters Concerning Mining in South Manchuria" stipulated in the "Exchange of Notes on Mining Matters in South Manchuria" allowed the mining of the warm pond coal mine in Jinxian County, western Liaoning. Zhang Zuolin sent a telegram to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Beiyang Government to warm up the pond mine, and in exchange of letters to indicate Jinxian, or to think that it was an obstacle in the region. The first miscellaneous mining is two in the original text, that is, two things. And there is no such mining area in Jinxian County, and the place name should be invalid. Zhang's meaning is very clear, that is, the geographical location of the warm pond in the "Exchange of Notes on Mining Matters Concerning South Manchuria" is wrong, and this provision has no legal effect. In addition, mining areas are different from mixed settlements, and there is no reason for Japan to "migrate" to Jinxian and the areas west of the Liao River on this basis. He urged the Ministry of Foreign Affairs to insist that the western Liaoning region should not be included in South Manchuria and that strong negotiations with Japan should continue.

Although the central government has repeatedly made representations to the Japanese side on this basis, Japan's act of instigating businessmen and people to infiltrate western Liaoning has not been curtailed in the slightest, and Japan's intention to include western Liaoning in the sphere of influence of "South Manchuria" has become obvious. The Beiyang government is becoming more and more weak on this issue. Under such circumstances, Zhang Zuolin once again sent a secret letter to offer advice: "However, the negotiations must depend on the national strength, and the dispute may have its own reasons, and it is true that the ten counties can be divided out of South Manchuria, and the two sides admit that it is very fortunate that we are within our scope. Zhang's quid pro quo was that if the Japanese insisted on annexing Liaoxi to South Manchuria, it would be premised on recognizing the following two conditions:

First, the Japanese side must accept the police regulations, taxation regulations, commercial lease rules, passport registration regulations, instructions for running mines in South Manchuria, and rules for joint agricultural and ancillary industries formulated by Feng Province. Judging from the content of these rules and regulations, they are all "designed to restrict Japanese people." In order to prevent all the rights and interests from being obtained by the Japanese, Zhang Zuolin presided over the formulation of the "Sino-Japanese Joint Agricultural and Affiliated Industry Rules", which clearly stipulates that the products of the joint industry must be designated by the administrative office of the administrative department, and the type of agricultural tools is limited; It is not allowed to operate without the permission of the local magistrate's office; China and Japan?? In the case of agricultural and ancillary industries, the number of partners between the two countries shall be equal; The joint industry is jointly controlled by the partners of the two countries; Regardless of the type of company, China and Japan must determine that the shares and capital contributions must be equal, and those who carry out the important affairs of the company, China and Japan? Wait; The shares issued by the joint venture company are started by ? Identified shares to be transferred to Maru? Limit; The profits derived from the joint agricultural and ancillary industries shall be distributed by the partners on a regular basis.

But not pills? In order to prevent a large area of land in Northeast China from being leased by the Japanese, the "Rules for Leased Land and Mu" stipulate: "When the landlord and the tenant agree on the lease of land, the local police district office of China shall be reported immediately; The landlord and the tenant must fill in the lease deed formulated by the Provincial Public Office, affix the seal of the Chinese magistrate, and the landlord and the witnesses in the lease, and the head of the neighboring village or the head of the village must sign and seal; The following land shall not be rented: those whose ownership has not been determined, those whose cultivation or construction is prohibited by law, wasteland and those who have not been checked and registered, and those who have not been surveyed for entanglements with neighboring land? Unknown?? If there is a land lease relationship, the Chinese local government has the right to order the tenant to terminate the contract. ”

Once these regulations were implemented, the Japanese who rented land in China would be subject to various restrictions and barriers. Zhang Zuolin saw that it was irreversible for the Japanese side to bring western Liaoning into South Manchuria, so he suggested in a secret letter that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Beijing should "if the Japanese envoy is bound to divide the 10 counties in western Liaoning into South Manchuria, and it is proposed to ask most of the ministries to put forward various regulations for negotiation together." This must be premised on recognizing the above-mentioned rules and regulations.

Second, Japan must relinquish its consular jurisdiction in South Manchuria. Article 5 of the Treaty Concerning South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia stipulates: "In the case of a lawsuit against a Japanese subject, the defendant shall be brought to the Japanese Consulate. When the defendant is accused, he shall be tried by the Chinese officials, and each shall send someone to the court to observe." By virtue of this provision, Japan has consular jurisdiction in Northeast China. At the time of the conclusion of this clause, Japan was intimidated by international public opinion and felt that it was a bit of a bone, so it added an additional clause, that is, "In the future, when the judicial system of this country is completely reformed, all the opinions concerning the Japanese subjects shall be affected." Cut litigation, i.e., the trial is entirely conducted by Chinese courts. In a secret letter to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Beijing, Zhang Zuolin suggested that the Japanese side should "demand that all or part of the South Manchuria region be held accountable to Japanese subjects." The lawsuit will be tried entirely by the Chinese courts."

Zhang Zuolin believes: "In exchange for the interests of these two ends, then the mulberry can be collected, and there is a plan to make up for it. In short, it is better to delay the case than to resolve it quickly, and admit that there must be resistance, otherwise the matter will not be recognized, and it will become a tacit acquiescence, which will be protracted, and the loss of rights will be great." Under the circumstance that Japan insisted on including Liaoxi as "South Manchuria" and secretly stepped up immigration to Liaoxi, Zhang's proposal for the above-mentioned exchange conditions was also a remedy for the dead. However, the result is self-evident, and the Japanese side did not agree to the above quid pro quo.

2. On the issue of land commercial lease rights

In accordance with the Treaty of Southern Manchuria and Eastern Inner Manchuria, Japan seized the right to lease land in the "South Manchuria" region. Japan is nominally a "commercial lease" of land, but in fact it is encroachment and annexation, and the land leased by the merchant will be equivalent to the railway annex that runs across the province of Feng. After the signing of the treaty, at the instigation of the Japanese government, Japanese businessmen, ronins and lawbreakers. People are in the province and carry out land speculation activities, for a time, don't? What is the earthly mound of the Japanese? Pieces happen again and again. Among them, the land litigation of Taiping Temple is a typical example. Taiping Temple is the official temple of the former Qing Zhaoling Mausoleum. In October 1915, the presiding monk of the Taiping Temple, Ben Ruisi, rented 402 acres of land around the temple to the Japanese Ifukahama and others.

The Mukden Negotiation Department has repeatedly sent notes to the Japanese Consulate General in Mukden that the land around the Taiping Temple is state-owned land, and that "the monk Benrui has no right to dispose of it, and Benrui has no right to dispose of it, so it is illegal to enter into a contract with Hamana, whether it is a mortgage or a commercial lease." It shall be deemed null and void. The Japanese side ignored it.

In order to prevent the recurrence of the Taiping Temple case, Zhang Zuolin sent a telegram to the State Council in Beijing on October 28, 1916: "Please ask President Chen Mingda of the Jun Yuan to order the Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Japanese envoy to stipulate that all Japanese people who rent acres of land in Fengshang or mortgage loans with acres of land must submit them to the local county governor or negotiator for verification. Other lease licenses, land registers and all improper contracts shall be invalid and shall not be used as evidence. Later, Zhang felt that the above measures were inappropriate, and on November 2, he called the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Beiyang Government again: "Please verify the previous telegram?? According to the same sentence, it is tentatively defined as 'the Japanese commercial rent must be reported to the governor of the county in the place where the property is located, and the deed shall be established'. "At the heart of the Liangdian claim is a ban on Chinese landowners, including holders of illegal title deeds, from dealing with the Japanese. The Beiyang government believes that Zhang's proposal "is also the law of clearing the source".

Zhang Zuolin not only advocated the use of local government to control land rentals, but also tried to take measures in terms of taxation to prevent land from being lost to the Japanese. Zhang suggested that the Ministry of the Interior of the Beiyang Government add the following content to the original "Notice on Commercial Lease of Land and Mu": "The ownership of the leased land is still in the landlord's hands. However, all present and future taxes on the land shall be paid by the lessee on behalf of the landlord. The tenant, who is responsible for paying taxes on behalf of the landlord, may demand a reduction in the rental price from the landlord at the beginning of the lease." This suggestion is not unfair to the Japanese lessee on the letter, but in fact, ?? Intention. Referring to the reasons for the proposal, he said: "Since the lessee is required to pay all taxes on behalf of the landlord now and in the future, he is obliged to ask the landlord to reduce the rent at the outset of the lease. Landlords due to the reduction of rental prices, the acres of land to rent to foreigners, there is absolutely no right to win, in the past luck speculation, full of far-reaching plans, are not implemented this policy, then the acres of land willing to rent to outsiders will be less, acres of land less rent and outsiders an inch, the rights of the country will be preserved, the two countries of friendship. Divided entanglements, a transfer, the preservation is huge". The Beiyang government considered Zhang's proposal "self-feasible" and adopted the above-mentioned tax collection method.

After taking the above measures, I feel that there are still loopholes. In December 1917, he issued another secret order to the governors of each county: "From January 1 of the year of the year,?? Jia et al. are not allowed to lease the land to outsiders, and they are not allowed to borrow from outsiders with evidence such as land deeds as collateral. Otherwise, the above-mentioned acts, if discovered, will be punished with the crime of land theft and theft? Disposition. "After the Japanese Consulate General in Mukden learned about the incident, it lodged a serious protest with the authorities of Bong Province on the grounds that the secretary had seriously infringed on the right to lease the land that Harumoto enjoyed. Zhang explained to the Japanese side: "The right to lease land is stipulated in the treaty, and there is no reason why it is not allowed. At present, there are some unscrupulous people who use other people's land or title deeds and other evidence, si self-rent and sufficient foreign debts, so that ? Meng was deceived and lost money in order to cause the incident in question. The Governor of the province issued this circular because he feared that the above-mentioned incident would occur. ”

This kind of two-sided diplomatic means, which ostensibly recognizes the right to commercial lease, but in fact denies it, performs the contract verbally, but actually resists, does not violate the whole and does not work concretely, plays a certain role in safeguarding national sovereignty and polder rights. From the signing of the "21st Article" to the Huanggutun incident, Zhang Zuoyiben's land commercial lease right has always adhered to this strategy, making the land commercial lease issue an "unsolved case" that Japan has been trying to solve, but has never been able to solve.

3. On the issue of the establishment of a consulate

After the Russo-Japanese War, Japan established consulates in Mukden, Tieling, Liaoyang and other places in Northeast China. These consulates became aggressive institutions for Japan, which pursued a policy of "Manchurianism". In 1916, the Japanese Minister to China, Nichi-yi, proposed to China to establish a system in Zhengjiatun, Delu, Hailong, Nong'an, and Tong? Requirements for the establishment of five consular branches. According to international practice, only commercial ports can set up pavilions, and the above-mentioned areas are not commercial ports, but belong to the mainland, and the reason of the Japanese side is that after the implementation of the "Treaty on South Manchuria and Eastern Inner Mongolia", "the number of Japanese people going to South Manchuria is increasing day by day", and "the establishment of museums as soon as possible, in the event of an incident, the local officials of your country can contact the consul." Under diplomatic pressure from the Japanese side, the Beiyang government was forced to grant Japan's demands. After learning of this news, Zhang Zuolin immediately called the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in Beijing and put forward different views and propositions. Zhang said in the telegram: "The establishment of a territory in the interior of the investigation is different from that of a commercial port. In addition, the regulations on mixed living have not yet been agreed and implemented, and there is no room for regeneration. This time, the Japanese envoy asked for a consul, but on the pretext of a joint trial to protect the mixed population. Since the land investigation lawsuit is heard by our legal department, and the Japanese live together according to the agreement, the resumption of the lawsuit. There is no need for protection. Today, the reason for the establishment of a consul is that the lawsuit is mixed, and the reason for the establishment of a police officer will be used for the joint trial and the police station. After tossing and turning, the legal power and the police power will be handed down. To Zheng and Nong, the two belong to the East Meng area, especially not to be mixed. It seems that it is not too late for the president to take into account the national power, and the Jun Yuan and the ministry should strive for reason, quickly plan to save the situation, and make amends. In this regard, Zhang Zuolin said in a telegram: "The Japanese envoy's proposal to set up five consuls has not been heard of at first. Later, regarding the diplomatic incident in the Eastern Province, Shang hoped to show the matter first, so that he could pay a little tribute to his foolishness and try to save it. ”

Later, Zhang Zuolin called the Beiyang government and proposed three countermeasures:

First, the Beiyang Government is urged to declare to Japan that Japan is not allowed to arbitrarily set up police stations in the places where it has consular branches. "In the commercial port of Feng Province, each Japanese consulate has added a police station and other categories in addition to the attached police officers. Today's digging deer and other places, but from the mainland to the mixed living area, according to the above, solid and commercial port xing quality is absolutely different, and the number of people living in the county is very limited, its most prosperous, but Zhengjiatun one. According to the county's report in April, there are 42 Japanese merchants, and most of them are pharmacies and restaurants, so there is no need to set up a consular branch. If it is allowed to set up more police sub-stations, it will not particularly destroy the regulations on mixed living in the future, and it will also hinder the local administrative power, which will cause even greater trouble. Therefore, Zhang Zuolin believes that "before the establishment of the museum, a layer of police police stations was added to all the museums, and it was strictly forbidden to declare in advance." to avoid the consequences, and to avoid strife".

Second, in order to prevent the Japanese side from setting up police stations under the pretext of setting up police stations, the police in each county of the Japanese Consular Branch Office will be rectified in advance and a complete police administration will be established. "Although there are not many people living in the county now, after the establishment of the branch of the Japanese consulate, it will start with the mixed residence of immigrants. Cheung believes that "the most important thing is to put the police in order, and if it is handled properly and the police are effective, it will be enough to eliminate the disadvantages of setting up more police stations".

Third, in each prefecture of the Japanese Consular Branch, there will be a negotiator. Zhang believed that negotiations with Japan in the future in the area of the preset consular branch in Japan would be indispensable, so he advocated that "there should be direct negotiations between opposing organs", and that each county where it is located should choose "proficient in Japanese" as a negotiator.

Although Zhang Zuolin repeatedly called to urge the Beiyang Government to make strong representations with Japan, and the Beiyang Government did make many statements to the Japanese side, Japan's attempt to set up additional consulates in "South Manchuria" and the eastern Inner Mongolia region has not been curtailed. For a long time to come, the issue of the establishment of a consular branch and the establishment of a police station derived from it raised by Japan has been one of the diplomatic issues negotiated between Japan and the Beiyang government and the authorities of Fengsheng Province.

II. Suppression by Force Against "Manchu Independence"

The ultimate purpose of the Northeast Article of the "21 Articles" was to separate the "Manchurians" from China and "place them under the protection of Japan." Therefore, after the signing of the "21 Articles," Japan stepped up the implementation of the "Manchurian" independence plan. But in relying on the? Catch? On the issue of this conspiracy, disagreements arose within the Japanese ruling circles. Japan's Kwantung Governor's Office, the Ministry of Military Affairs, and the Japanese ronin advocated using the Jongsha Party to implement the "Manchurian" independence plan, while the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Japan's offices in China advocated supporting Zhang Zuolin's independence in "Manchuria." The Japanese, who advocated the use of the Zongshe Party to implement the plan of "Manchu independence," "secretly gave all kinds of support to the so-called Zongshe Party in the north, that is, the faction that attempted to restore the Qing Dynasty, so that they could constantly make trouble with the Beijing government." The Japanese ronin, lurking in various parts of northern China, rampantly transferred arms from Japan, recruited the "Qinwang Army", and established the "Manmeng" headquarters in Dalian. Although the officials of the Japanese Consulate in Northeast China also agreed with the Japanese government's general policy of dividing the Manchurians, they were very concerned about the Japanese ronin and the Communists who "tried to rely on ?? and carrying out undignified plundering and small riots", believing that "instead of succeeding, it will be boring because of the ugliness of violence", and chose Zhang Zuolin, a powerful figure in Fengtian, to honor the "21 Articles" and promote "Manchu independence", which is far more practical than supporting the Zongshe Party.

In April 1916, the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the Japanese Military Department instructed officials stationed in China: "How Zhang Zuolin's attitude has a great bearing on the future situation of the three northeastern provinces" and "On this occasion, I would like to further express Japan's true intentions,?? This is a shortcut." After receiving instructions from the Japanese government, the Consulate General in Mukden stepped up the movement of Zhang Zuolin, and even drafted the declaration of independence of Fengtian Province on his behalf. However, Zhang Zuolin not only showed no signs of independence, on the contrary, after taking up the post of Fengtian overseer and governor, he resolutely advocated the banning of the "Zongshe Party" that conspired to "Manchu independence". In this way, the Japanese people, who supported the "Zongsha Party" faction, discussed a plan to kill Zhang, but it did not succeed. The movement of Zhang Zuolin to promote "Manchu independence" failed, and the killing of Zhang was unsuccessful, and Japan turned to fully support the Meng bandit Babu Zabu. A large number of ammunition was secretly sent to the bandits, and veterans were also sent to the Babu Zabu Department as military instructors to train the armed forces. In late May, more than 6,000 Meng bandits, armed by the Japanese, went south in an attempt to seize Mukden in one fell swoop and establish the "Manchu Meng Empire". Less than a month after taking office as the overseer of Fengtian, Zhang Zuofei decisively adopted a policy of repression. At the beginning of August, the Meng bandits marched to Guojia, a key station of the South Manchurian Railway, intending to rest under Japanese protection, and then capture the provincial capital of Mukden in one fell swoop. Zhang Zuolin asked Japan to allow the Feng army to go to the South Manchurian Railway to fight for suppression, but Japan refused under the pretext of strictly observing neutrality. When the Feng army completed the encirclement of Guojiadian on foot and launched an attack, the Japanese tore off the camouflage of "neutrality" and demanded that the Feng army cease the war on the pretext that it would "disrupt the concession and bullets fly into the dependent areas", otherwise it would use force. The Beiyang government sent a telegram to Zhang Zuolin: "When you encounter a related situation when suppressing bandits, please handle it prudently." Zhang sent a telegram to the Beiyang government: "The Meng bandits who went to Guojiadian have been surrounded by our army, and it is not difficult to gather and annihilate, but the Japanese are deliberately sheltering them, and they are not allowed to attack the station with a false mouth.

While openly sheltering the Meng bandits, the Japanese deliberately created the Zhengjiatun incident in an attempt to "prevent the Chinese army from doing anything else" and "make the Meng bandits flee in a hurry by taking advantage of the gap." Zhengjiatun is the main water and land transportation route between the two provinces of Feng and Ji and the eastern Inner Menggu. After Japan put forward the "21 Articles," it deliberately encouraged Japanese businessmen to move to Zhengjiatun in large numbers, and also set up a Japanese patrol police station there. After the Zhengjiatun incident, Japan unreasonably demanded that "all squadrons must be 30 miles away" and posted a notice announcing that Chinese were not allowed to enter the above-mentioned areas. In order to cover the safe evacuation of the Meng bandits, Japan also formulated a military plan to mobilize 8,000 Japanese soldiers to Zhengjiatun, and transferred 800 people from the "Qinwang Army" formed by the Zongshe Party hidden in Dalian to Guojiadian to increase the strength of the Meng bandits. In the face of Japan's tremendous military pressure, Zhang Zuolin officially informed the Japanese side that "the bandits have united with the Qinwang Army" under the pretext of participating in the rebellion: "Since the Meng bandits have united with the Qinwang Army, the squadron has to make a large-scale crusade." At the beginning of the rebellion, Zhang Zuolin took resolute measures to suppress it, during which Japan repeatedly obstructed it, but Zhang Zuolin did not flinch, and finally defeated the Meng bandits in September of that year, and the "second Manchu Meng independence" planned by Japan went bankrupt.

Japan provoked the Zhengjiatun incident not only to cover up the Babu Zabu bandits, but also to harbor a greater premeditation, that is, to use the incident as a pretext to diplomatically ??, force China to honor the provisions of the "21 Articles" concerning Northeast China. As a result, he insisted on direct negotiations with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Beiyang Government. From August 1916 to January of the following year, China and Japan began negotiations for more than five months.

On 2 September, Japan formally submitted to the Beijing Government an eight-point demand for infringing on China's sovereignty in Northeast China, renewing and expanding the rights and interests related to aggression in the fifth item of the "21 Articles," which had been rejected by China, and forcing China to recognize them. Representatives of the Japanese side, no? to exert pressure, especially to the Japanese police. Subsequently, the negotiations between China and Japan mainly revolved around this point. After Japan made a request to infringe on the sovereignty of Northeast China, Zhang Zuolin sent a telegram to the central government to express his gratitude to all walks of life in Northeast China. The willingness to resist Japanese aggression was reflected in a more objective manner. Japan's demand for aggression to eliminate terrorism caused all strata in the three eastern provinces to be furious. The Mukden Provincial Assembly convened a mass meeting of military, political, business, and academic circles to denounce Japan's aggressive act of demanding the establishment of police and military advisory powers. The meeting passed a petition to the Central Committee, demanding that the Central Committee make serious representations with Japan and "safeguard sovereignty by hiding hidden dangers." Zhang sent a petition and a telegram to the Beijing government from the provincial people, "The people of the province are angry, and they are sworn to fight to the death. The representative is firm in the feelings of the people, and refuses to give up until the purpose of refusal is reached," and a note was attached to the telegram: "Investigate the sovereignty of the police, and the secrets of the advisers on the military, and the various sections of the council are indeed true, and the situation is difficult to achieve, and the public is angry and difficult to ask for serious negotiations, and fight on the basis of reason, so as to conform to public opinion."

After repeated negotiations between China and Japan, China rejected the provisions of the original proposal, such as Japan's right to establish police and dispatch military advisers. The reason for this result is that in addition to all strata in the country? Resistant, and? Another important ??, is that Zhang Zuolin's attitude and measures of resistance in this incident played a certain role.

Sanming should resist secretly and use two-sided diplomacy

At the beginning of the "21 Articles" negotiations, Zhang Zuolin mainly gave advice to the central government, and tried his best to avoid direct conflict with Japan, which was related to his strength at that time, and he hoped that the central government would create a relatively relaxed international environment for him. In addition, although the "21 Articles" involve many rights and interests in the northeast, this is a treaty between the two countries, and as a magistrate in the northeast, I am afraid that the main thing he can do is to provide advice and advice to the central government. But after the treaty was signed, when Japan demanded the fulfillment of the "21 Articles", he faced not only the central government, but also anger. Tough Japan. On the one hand, he had to convince Japan that he was doing his best to meet Japan's demands, and on the other hand, he had to convince Maru that he was doing his best to resist all the oppression he could from Japan and to protect the interests of the nation. Between the two waves of anger demanding and resisting the "21st Article," Zhang Zuolin walked on thin ice, was careful, and tried his best to use duplicity as long as he did not anger either side.

In accordance with the "21 Articles" and the supplementary agreement, the lease term of Dalian and Lushun as Japanese concessions was changed from the original 25 years (valid until 1923) to 99 years, so that the validity period was extended to 1997. At the Washington Conference in 1922, the Chinese delegation proposed to revise the unequal treaties, including the "Twenty-One Articles", but immediately rejected it. After that, a powerful and broad-based movement to reclaim Lushun and Dalian was in full swing in China, especially in the northeast, where the anti-Japanese movement flourished.

Japan asks Zhang Zuo? Exercise to be compressed. Zhang assured the president of the Manchurian Railway that he would suppress the ?? Wei Parade; will convince the Beijing government that it is not appropriate to engage in such a campaign. In April 1923, he presided over the reception meeting in Mukden, but passed a decree: "In order not to arouse the disgust of the Japanese, do not actively strive to take back the University, but on the other hand, do not oppose the present movement too fiercely, so as not to attract profits." decision. Zhang even openly said, "With this diplomacy, we must follow the will of the people, so I listened." There is no way to learn and act". He knew that he would be angry with Japan if the news was revealed, so he sent Wang Yongjiang, governor of Fengtian Province, to explain to Japan that the current demand for the abolition of the "21 Articles" issue has become a public opinion, "If you go against this issue, you will be regarded as a traitor, and to a certain extent, you will respond to it, and tactfully state the position of the authorities of the three eastern provinces, which is really out of easing the three provinces." For the purpose of feelings, please forgive me for this pain. "Although the Bong Provincial Authorities have taken great pains to give various explanations to the Japanese, the Japanese believe that the Bong authorities have appropriately suppressed the anti-Japanese and repossession of rights and interests movement on the one hand, and on the other hand have taken advantage of it in an attempt to extract some kind of concessions from the Japanese side in order to achieve the goal of recovering the real profits.

On the issue of building a railway, Zhang Zuolin was also forced to try to appease and support the two sides that were incompatible with each other. While he persuaded Japan that he was in favour of a plan to expand the Japanese-run and Japanese-financed railway network, he was ambitiously drawing up plans to build the South Manchurian Railway with only domestic capital. In the negotiation of specific routes, Zhang Zuolin's most nerve-wracking Tiejiji (Lin) will (Ning) Railway. For Japan, the road was doubly important, and at Hoeryeong it could connect the Korean iron camp of Jilin and Changchun, and then turn into Heilongjiang, and Japan counted on the Jihui Road to link the regional economy of North Manchuria with the economies of Japan and colonial Korea in South Manchuria, and at the same time, the Japanese Army considered it the most ideal route to attack the Soviet Union, and the Japanese Navy believed that in the event of a future conflict with the United States, the road would quickly supply Japan with food and other strategic resources. The road is one of the major disputes between China and Japan. Although Zhang Zuolin repeatedly stated to Japan that he did not oppose Japan's plan to expand into North Manchuria in order to squeeze out Soviet Russia, he repeatedly explicitly instructed the Jilin Bureau to try to delay and prevaricate in the negotiations, so that the construction of the state would not be completed until after the establishment of the state of Zhouzhou.

At the beginning of 1923, Jilin Province?? There was a protest against the "Japanese-Zhizhi Tiantu Railway", and the residents along the line refused to relocate and sell the railway land. Although Zhang Zuolin ostensibly agreed to Japan's request, he secretly telegraphed the governor of Jilin: "The land used for the Tiantu Railway that the Japanese are allowed to lay is supposed to be. May it be transferred for the Japanese to be occupied. If the inhabitants along the route refuse to transfer their land, they can stop and delay the Japanese laying plan under appropriate pretexts."

In 1925, Guo Songling defected, and Japan took advantage of the dying rule of Zhang Zuolin to propose to Zhang a secret agreement with the same content as the "Twenty-one Articles" on the Northeast issue: ", all?" We must not admit the matters within the requirements of Japan's '21 Articles', so as not to let the fathers and elders of the three eastern provinces scold? Lin is a traitor. Zhang Zuolin secretly ordered the provincial council to oppose the signing of the secret treaty. While using his excuse to delay and overturn the previous case, Zhang also arrived in Lushun in person, and Japan thought that he wanted to honor the fifth clause of the "21 Articles" -- the "secret treaty" -- and that he could return to Mukden as soon as he had sent the tiger skin and money. He said to him: "Lin is benefiting from the Japanese, only? Repay him with his own possessions. I will give away all the deposits of the Bank of Japan, indicating my wholeheartedness, if the Japanese ask otherwise, as long as Yu Lin personally owns, I will not be stingy, but the rights of the state, he? I don't dare to be generous with some property, I am the head of the family in the Northeast, I have to protect this property for silk, and live up to their trust! ”

During Zhang Zuolin's domination of the Northeast, there were many cases of "agreeing to Japan's demands and failing to fulfill them afterwards" when the situation was urgent or in danger. The author believes that this has nothing to do with the bandits, and this is a passive resistance and delaying tactic that Zhang exerted as a last resort. Because of this, he fulfilled many rights and interests for the country, the nation, and the people, but he personally paid a heavy price for this, and the reason why he died at the hands of the Kwantung Army was not unrelated to his diplomatic methods in a certain sense.

In addition to the fact that the two-sided diplomacy against Japan is far inferior to Japan's, there is another reason, that is, Zhang Zuofei? Exact political ideas. China's modern warlords are the product of the transition period from the feudal system to the democratic system in China's modern society, and in a strict sense, it is impossible for warlords to put forward political concepts that meet the needs of the times, but this does not mean that warlords only know how to use military force. Because of the different backgrounds, circumstances, and education of the warlords, most of them understand the role of ideology in order to defeat their opponents and unite the people in a complex political environment. Despite his lack of deep understanding of modern ideology, Zhang Zuolin struggled to use it to advance his career. At least in 1922, he considered ideological issues and began Taoism.2 In the same year he instructed Xu Lanzhou to invent a "union of five religions" to unite the Eastern Sects.

Although the "union of the five religions" later came to an end, Zhang Zuolin also passively accepted Sixiang in his negotiations with Sun Yat-sen and in his dealings with Wang Yongjiang and other new-school figures, and he often begged for concepts such as nationalism, representative system, and democratic politics. Objectively, this provides an opportunity for the spread of new ideas in Northeast China to be systematically elaborated and expressed. The most important achievement of this was the establishment of the "Minbao of the Three Eastern Provinces" in October 1922. The newspaper was founded by Zhang Zuolin, who was the vanguard of the Dongkuoism and anti-imperialist movements amid growing tensions between Zhang and Japan. In February 1924, Zhang Zuolin clearly stated to the Japanese Consulate General in Feng that those who lived in the "Kanto" area under Japanese control and the annexed areas of the South Manchurian Railway were illegal. Face-to-face hearing. In order to support the efforts of the people to regain their sovereignty, the "People's Daily of the Three Eastern Provinces" published an editorial: "How can we stop the indiscriminate killing of the Japanese police? The atrocities that had occurred in Taiwan and North Korea are now happening in Northeast China, because they also see Northeast China as Taiwan and North Korea. Ask, the Japanese are the most cruel and ruthless people in the world." In 1927, the Northeast authorities built "a complete western trunk line system parallel to the South Manchurian Railway" gradually took shape, and the Beiyang government controlled by Zhang Zuolin began to impose import surcharges. Japan was very annoyed by this, and launched a propaganda machine to hype up the contents of the "21 Articles" and its supplementary agreements, attacking Zhang Zuolin for ignoring the agreement, and the most arrogant newspaper was the "Shengjing Shibao," a Chinese newspaper run by Japan in Mukden. On June 10, Zhang Zuolin ordered a ban? Buy and read "Shengjing Times". On the one hand, Zhang Zuolin has built his own public opinion position and publicized his own ideas, and on the other hand, he has weakened Japan's public opinion position and reduced the public opinion position. impact, which is also relatively rare among modern warlords.

From Zhang Zuolin's attitude and stance of doing everything possible to resist the "21 Articles" in the "Manchurian negotiations," we can conclude that he is not a Japanese puppet, but he is a non-comatose or anti-imperialist to be further discussed. This was largely determined by his attitude towards the anti-Japanese movement. Whether to suppress or relax restrictions on the anti-Japanese movement, or to join it completely, is this the decision to resist the "21 Articles" or achieve the final victory? The anti-Japanese movement is the most powerful form of resisting the "21 Articles", calling for awakening, and rallying national strength, but this is very dangerous for Zhang Zuolin, because it is likely to endanger his own dictatorship, and he cannot completely stand with the masses. The emotions of the doctrine are controlled in favor of him. After the Eastern Conference in 1927, Japan took tough measures to re-propose the settlement of the "Manchurian unsolved case". Lin cashed in on the "21st Article". The provincial council controlled by Zhang formed a "diplomatic support committee", and since then the various "corporations"?? Imitation, the goal is "resist more?" violent oppression". Will the backing be red? A demonstration of 20,000 people was organized in Mukden City. The demonstrators carried slogans and flags such as "Down with imperialism," "Down with the Tanaka Cabinet," "Down with Manchuism," and "Oppose Japan's establishment of a consulate in Linjiang." After the meeting, the demonstrators went to various residential and commercial areas to give speeches, calling for a boycott of Japanese products. 1. The secret support of this anti-Japanese movement was Zhang Zuolin. Zhang wants to help?? Nationalist sentiment strengthens bargaining chips with Japan at the negotiating table.

Before the planned second large-scale demonstration, leaflets reading "End militarism" were found on the streets of Mukden,?? Anger burned on Zhang Zuolin's head. In addition, the Japanese minister accused the Mukden anti-Japanese demonstration in person of being secretly launched by the upper echelons of the Chinese government, implying that it was launched by Zhang Zuolin, and Zhang then ordered a ban. Power. This betrayed him and made it impossible for him to become a member of the camp. So, no matter how painstakingly he tried to resist the "Twenty-One", he was still a long way from being a true nationalist.

?? Afraid and refusing to consider leaving completely? His defeat in the civil war led to the abandonment of his attempt to confront Japan with the strength of the whole country. By rejecting the former, he loses his broad and powerful social base as a gebra; When he struggled to extend his power throughout the country, he not only tried to choose a domestic alliance that was favorable to him, but also did everything possible to do so. Seek supporters. In this way, it is impossible for him to become an outright anti-imperialist. This kind of ideology inevitably led him to adopt a two-faced approach in handling relations with Japan.

allies, trying to break through Japanese control

After the defeat of the First Zhifeng War, Zhang Zuolin was dismissed from his position and declared the "independence" of the three eastern provinces. Abandoning the ambition of unifying the whole country and focusing on the implementation of the "21st Article", Japan's "rights" in "Manchuria" are Japan? Lin's consistent requirements. Will Zhang's declaration of "independence" help Japan realize its ambition of "full independence"? In fact, there is hardly any indication that Zhang was acting in accordance with Japan's intentions. His "independence" was not expressed not only by the Japanese concept of "Manchuria", but even by the concept of "Manchuria", which could enhance his sense of "legitimacy" and independence. His "independence" was actually autonomy, not only autonomy independent of the Beiyang government, but also autonomy that wanted to get rid of Japanese control.

Breaking free from Japanese control and using the northeast as a base to unify the whole of China, Yulin completed the two dreams of the three eastern provinces in the autumn of 1921. However, these two dreams are contradictory, Yu to get rid of Japan is to consolidate his rule in the Northeast, Yu to unify and develop the local strength of the Northeast, and the Northeast is the so-called "Manmeng" area controlled by the Japanese, Yu to consolidate the regime is inseparable from Japan's support, Yu to strengthen the local strength is also inseparable from Japan's funds, so Zhang Zuolin's plan to get rid of Japan is full of historical contradictions and unpredictable dangers.

1922 was a watershed moment in the relationship. Between Zhang Zuolin and Japan, there is no major conflict on the surface, and it seems that both sides are trying their best to maintain a calm situation. However, for the sake of the "21 Articles" tacitly agreed by each other, Zhang Zuolin made a major and risky, subtle and bold adjustment to the original plan. Whether it is in the military and political fields, as well as in the economic and cultural fields, there has been a noteworthy shift in policy, that is, from a policy of dependence on Japan for weapons, technology, funds, and various advisers to adopt a policy of dependence? The allies' strategy of "razing and razing".

In the most important military field, Zhang Zuolin began to expand military factories, purchase ordnance, and prepare for the establishment of the navy and air force. In the course of running these undertakings, one of the striking features is that while maintaining the original relations with Japan, it has begun to cooperate with various Western countries. exchanges, arms and ordnance trade, and engineering technology from European and American countries.

Mukden City has long had an arsenal, but it was small enough to produce bullets and smokeless gunpowder. ??, 1922, Zhang Zuolin invested hundreds of thousands of dollars to expand the factory. Its equipment and materials are also purchased from Japan, but most of them are purchased from Denmark, Germany, and the United States. Zhang Zuolin also hired the famous British mortar and ** expert Shatun as the director of the mortar factory with a huge honorarium of 15,000 pounds. The arsenal employs more than 1,500 foreign technicians, most of whom come from Russia, Germany, Britain, the United States and other countries. 2 At that time, the Northeast Arsenal was large in scale and well-equipped, "not only the first in the country, that is, Japan?? Side-eye". The Japanese called this arsenal "the first in the East".

Dongchao is a relatively modern arsenal, but the output of munitions still cannot meet the needs of Zhang Zuolin's military expansion. As a result, he began a large arms trade with other countries. At this time, the arms trade was mainly related to the swagger? carried out. Zhang's main trading partners include Italy, France, the Czech Republic, Norway, Denmark, the United States, Switzerland and the Netherlands. The items traded included ammunition, guns, artillery, tanks, as well as various ordnance and military supplies such as military telephones and uniforms. After the 20s, Zhang tried his best to get from the slack? This "diversified" arms trade in arms acquisition has eased the burden of arms acquisition. The degree of dependence of Ben.

From 1924 onwards, Zhang Zuolin gradually took de facto control of the Beiyang government. Japan originally thought that if he supported Zhang's control of the Beijing regime, he would definitely be able to obey Japan and solve the "unresolved Manchurian case" that had not been resolved for many years, especially in 1925, when Guo Songling was rebelling against Feng, and Japan Zeng Qilin proposed to recognize the "21 Articles" as a condition for sending troops to aid Zhang. At this time, Zhang Zuolin's position had changed, and he was no longer a small warlord who controlled one side, but a big warlord who held the power in Beijing and occupied most of China. He believes that in this case, it is necessary to adopt the strategy of "razing and destroying Japan", with the help of the power of Britain and the United States, contain the insatiable Japan, and break free from the hands of Japan, so as to gain more independence and autonomy. He has shown favor to the West, used the Northeast industry to attract British investment, and even wanted to use Britain as the "big brother" to guide many British and American businessmen and diplomats in China to appreciate its flexible attitude, and have repeatedly asked for help from London and Washington. In February 1928, Zhang Zuolin finally borrowed a large loan of 20 million yuan from Britain and the United States to save the difficulties of financial collapse due to the continuous civil war.

Since ancient times, the prosperity of border troubles has been inappropriate. In the forest of strong enemies、?? Under the predicament of the two great powers of Japan and Russia, Zhang Zuohai's purpose as an international ally was to take advantage of international contradictions to get rid of Japan's political control and break Japan's monopoly position in Northeast China in terms of capital, arms supply, and technical equipment, and on the other hand, to unify himself under his power, so as to resist Japanese imperialist aggression against Northeast China with the political, economic, and military strength of the entire country as the backing.

In addressing this issue, he needs to address two issues at once: one is the domestic allies he seeks to ally with. He has formed alliances with the Anhui lineage, the direct line and Sun Yat-sen, but all parties have their own opinions, occupy their own territory, and do not give in to each other, so they naturally cannot become long-term allies, and after all, there is only one way to meet each other. Each alliance certainly contributed to Fengzhang's expansion, but the result of each split and war was a loss of strength. The second is in?? Seek international allies. Zhang's power is based in the Northeast, which is mainly the world of the two major powers of Japan and Russia, and he always covets the Northeast. Zhang's strategy was to be pro-Japanese in Far Russia, and at the same time to show favor to Japan and defeat the Russians, with the aim of breaking through the clamping of Japan and Russia.

The result? Fighting with Russia, forcibly recovering the right of way in the Middle East, and deepening contradictions with Soviet Russia. Moving closer to Japan, the purpose of which is to develop to the south and seize power in the whole country, which contradicts the hopes of Japan and the layout of aggression in China? Conflicts have arisen again and again, and the relationship has become increasingly complicated. Breasts? Okay, hire beauty? Hero?? Advisors, welcome European and American forces to the Northeast. After he took control of the regime in Beijing, he was even more right? You are profitable, or emotional, or mighty, but at this time, Europe and the United States?? The focus will be on the Nanjing regime, which is expanding northward and gaining momentum. Although he struggled to acquire some arms, equipment, technology, and funds from the West, and also got rid of Japan's control to a certain extent, from the perspective of historical development, this kind of pluralistic and balance-of-power diplomacy effort also conformed to the inevitable requirements and general trend of the ever-changing international political environment, but the formulation and results of any foreign policy all depended on the development and changes of domestic and foreign politics. After all, he did not and could not seek a true international ally. Naturally, the introduction of European and American forces to resist Japan and Russia not only failed, but on the contrary, it increased Japan's jealousy, and Japan thus took the step of getting rid of him by force.

Fifth, develop the local economy and enhance the strength of resistance

At the beginning of Zhang Zuolin's reign in Fengtian, the number of Sino-Japanese "joint-venture" enterprises in Northeast China increased rapidly. According to statistics, in the six years from 1905 to 1911, Japan set up more than 50 factories and enterprises of various kinds in Northeast China, and in the three years from 1916 to 1918, there were as many as 38 newly established Sino-Japanese "joint" enterprises. Such as "Xixian Railway Company", "Zhonghua Mining Company", "Anshan Zhenxing Iron Ore Co., Ltd.", "Changchun Transportation Co., Ltd.", "Manchuria Forest Co., Ltd.", "Kaiyuan Money Industry Co., Ltd.", "Sino-Japanese Joint Establishment Huitong Qianhao", "Jilin Xinglin Paper Company", "Yalujiang Paper Company" and so on. As we can see from the names of these companies, Japan has been involved in important economic sectors related to the economic lifeline of Tohoku, such as railways, mines, forests, finance, and land. According to statistics, in 19161920, Japan's investment in Sino-Japanese joint ventures increased from 28 million yen to 400 million yen, an increase of 14 times in four years. It is astonishing that Japanese capital has grown so rapidly in such a short period of time. The Chicago Daily of the United States wrote: "China has only nominal sovereignty over Manchuria. Beijing is famous, Tokyo enjoys the truth". ）

The "Sino-Japanese joint project" is one of the important contents of the "21 Articles" and is also an important means for Japan to carry out economic aggression against Northeast China. Zhang Zuofei was not without vigilance, but he had just been in power in Fengxian Province at that time, and he was constantly facing the threat of rebellion, and he was not only facing complex internal political disputes, but also the financial chaos in Fengtian. In addition, there are other reasons: (1) he urgently needs Japanese funds for economic development, and subjectively, he wants to introduce foreign capital; (2) Many joint ventures are problems left over from history; (3) After he became the patrol envoy of the three eastern provinces, he nominally unified the northeast, but it was difficult for him to control the administrative affairs of the two provinces at this time; (4) His own quality determines the logical relationship between economic aggression and political aggression, which requires a process of understanding.

Entering the 20s, Zhang Zuolin showed a kind of ?? Independence and self-determination. The main reasons for this are: (1) in the alliance with Sun Yat-sen, he was influenced by the progressive ideas of the south; (2) The development of the economy and the enhancement of national consciousness have made the bourgeoisie more and more consciously set their sights on developing themselves, rather than relying on them. (3) "Sino-Japanese joint venture" enterprises? The reality of industrial repression and crowding?? The local powerful faction saw the true purpose of Japan, and they demanded a boycott of Japan; (4) The defeat of the First Naobong War freed him from the whirlpool of tense war and domestic political strife, and gave him the time and conditions to reconsider some of the problems that had arisen as a result of the defeat and to think about the Tohoku issue in its entirety. His thinking gradually approached the level of understanding of the national bourgeoisie on the "Sino-Japanese joint venture": "The so-called Japanese-Chinese joint venture has always been just a name added to the cause of the Japanese, and it is Japan that has benefited from this cause. This kind of 'joint venture', whether it is industry, mining, or agriculture, is not the hope of the Chinese government and the people." Therefore, while trying to get rid of Japanese control politically and militarily, he also quietly competed with Japan in the economic field. From 1921 onwards, the number of new Sino-Japanese joint ventures in the three eastern provinces decreased year by year.

While resisting Sino-Japanese joint ventures, he began to set up his own business. In view of the fact that the Northeast needs a lot of cotton cloth, and most of these cotton cloths are supplied by Japan, it has become the largest source of financial outflow in the Northeast. Under the advocacy of Zhang Zuolin, in September 1921, the Fengtian authorities used 4.5 million yuan of capital to start the establishment of the Fengtian Spinning Factory. It has successively purchased 200 machines from the United States, and in terms of the source of raw cotton, the raw material for production, it was decided that "except for those produced in Montenegro, Beizhen and Liaoyang, no foreign cotton is used." "This is the largest self-run and independently operated textile factory in Northeast China. Greet.

In terms of mining, the self-built and self-operated large-scale coal mines in Northeast China are represented by Beipiao, Badaohao, Xi'an (now Liaoyuan) Hegang, Fuchuan Bay, etc., and are listed among the 28 modern coal mines in the country at the end of the 20th century. The rivalry with Japan is also evident in the power industry. At the beginning of 1921, Japan proposed to set up a Sino-Japanese joint Fufeng power transmission station to transmit electricity to the provincial city of Fengtian, but Socklin refused. From 1923 to 1927, at a rate of 3.5 power companies per year, a total of 20 new power companies were built, thus breaking Japan's monopoly on the power industry in Tohoku.

In terms of machinery manufacturing, in 1922, the Huanggutun Locomotive and Rolling Stock Factory was expanded to manufacture railway passenger and freight locomotives, which was second only to the Tangshan Factory of the Bac Ninh Railway. Then, the Northeastern University factory was established, which used advanced German machines to manufacture locomotives, generators, mining machinery, etc. These factories all have their own power plants, refuse? Electricity.

The development of industry and the preservation of China's sovereignty were the main themes of the military and political conferences that were often convened during this period. In January 11924, Zhang Zuolin personally presided over a meeting of military and political dignitaries in the three eastern provinces, which was attended by civilian officials above the county magistrate and officers above the brigade commander. Building more government-run factories in 10 places? the development of twenty of the best government mines in the three eastern provinces; An additional $2 million will be added to enable the large-scale development of the Hulan Sugar Mill, the Fengtian Spinning Mill, the Yalu River Timber Picking Company and the Ben Lan Sugar Mill, the Mukden Spinning Mill, and the Sugar Mill Mill. Mining Company".

The most counterproductive measure for Japan is the construction of the main railway line of the three eastern provinces. Railways are an important means of transportation in modern times, which is not only an artery driving economic development, but also related to defense construction and national defense security, and is also a carrier for creating huge economic benefits. Therefore, in modern times, all imperialists have regarded the seizure of railway investment, construction, and management rights as the first step in their foreign expansion and aggression. Since 1894, when the Qing government built the railway east of Shanhaiguan, to the time when the local government in Northeast China built its own railway, 9 railways have been built in Northeast China, with a total operating mileage of kilometers, accounting for more than 33% of the national railway operating mileage. China's railways account for only 20% of the operating mileage, while Japan and Russia account for 77.2%. It can be seen that although the density of the Northeast Railway ranks among the top in the country, most of them are in the hands of the country. Village. "Since the competition between Japan and Russia, it has long been a situation of division between the north and the south. The Japanese took Lushun and Dalian as their naval bases, and their railways ran directly through the southern part of the three eastern provinces; The Russians use Vladivostok as their naval base, and their railways run through the northern part of the three eastern provinces. The armies of the two countries will not be able to reach it in a few days, and the lifeblood of the three eastern provinces is already hanging in the hands of the two countries. "By virtue of the South Manchurian Railway, Japan not only enjoyed great economic advantages, but also could restrain the movement of the Feng army militarily at any time. When the Fengjun army used the railway, in addition to paying the freight on the spot, it had to be reported to the Japanese Consul General in Mukden and the Kwantung Command for approval; Do you have to cancel when you get on the bus? guns, ammunition and ammunition are checked separately; The Fengjun of the Kwantung Carriage has the right to supervise; The military supplies of the Feng Army must be approved by the Kwantung Army Command before they are allowed to operate; Japan can suspend its transportation at any time, etc. Whether in terms of military defense or economic construction, the self-construction of the Northeast Railway is a necessary task to save the Min crisis. Therefore, Zhang Zuolin decided to build his own railway.

In 1922, the Fengtian authorities headed by Zhang Zuolin made a plan to build two major railway lines in the east and west. One is the western trunk line from Huludao through Tongliao and Qiqihar to Aihui; One is from Mukden, through the eastern trunk line of Hailong and Jizhimusi. The two major trunk lines are connected to Kannai through the Gyeongbong Railway, and when they are completed, they will "establish the foundation for free transportation," "have unlimited benefits for the economic and national defense prospects of Northeast China," and are bound to become the third largest railway system in Northeast China competing with the two major railway systems of the South Manchurian Railway and the Middle East Railway. This?? Lin's attempt to "get rid of Japanese control and interference" is a major move.

In order to lead this large-scale railway construction, in May 1924, Zhang Zuolin decided to establish the transportation committee of the three eastern provinces and appointed Wang Yongjiang, the governor of Fengtian Province, as the chairman of the transportation committee,?? The personnel of the provincial organs organize the highest administrative body, which is endowed with full power and supplemented by collective efforts. In order to avoid Japan's interference, it was also decided to build the project in sections, not to make the overall plan violent as soon as possible, and to "use no foreign capital at all."

After 1925, there was an upsurge of joint investment in the construction of railways by the authorities of the three northeastern provinces and businessmen in the northeast. It has successively built the Tongtong Railway (from Dahushan of the Jingfeng Railway to Tongliao, opened to traffic in November 1927, with a total length of 251 kilometers), the Jinchao Railway, the Fenghai Railway (Fengtian to Hailong, opened to traffic in September 1927, 337 kilometers), the Jihai Railway (completed in November 1929, with a total length of 183 kilometers), the Hegang Railway (completed in January 1927, 56 kilometers), the Huhai Railway (Majia to Hailun, completed in December 1928, 220 kilometers), the Anqi Railway (Angangxi to Qiqihar, Completed in December 1928, 36.8 km), Qike Railway (Qiqihar to Tai'an, now Yi'an, completed in 1929, 177 km), Taosuo Railway (Tao'an to Solon, completed in August 1929, 260 km). By the end of the 20s, the Northeast self-built iron python was formed.

At the same time as the launch of the two major railway lines, Zhang Zuolin began to brew the construction of a large port with a throughput of 5 million tons of goods - Huludao Port. He said: "I want to open my own Huludao port, which is to boycott the Japanese port of Dalian, and we must do a good job in this matter." 4 Huludao is connected to the two major railway lines in the east and west independently built by the above-mentioned Northeast authorities, and materials from all over the Northeast can be used as an outlet to the sea.

The government and the people in Northeast China built their own railways, and they interfered and obstructed in every possible way. At the same time as building its own railways and seaports in Tohoku, the Japanese cabinet is drawing up plans to expand to North Manchuria. By using the "powers" of various treaties that it had seized to expand Japan's railways?1 Therefore, Japan held that the railway built by itself in Northeast China was a "parallel line of the South Manchurian Railway," which violated the so-called agreement between the Qing court and Japan in 1905 that China was not allowed to build a double-track railway near the South Manchurian Railway. Zhang Zuolin also refuted it in the form of a note, saying that every railway in the Northeast is "through the government?? The discussion and revision is a matter of internal affairs," and the Japanese government "has no need to intervene."

Open? In the 20s, when most cities in China had no railway stations and most areas did not have railways, two railway stations actually appeared in Fengtian City, and railway "parallel lines" appeared in Northeast China. This played an important role in breaking Japan's long-term control of the main line of the Northeast Railway and its monopoly on railway transportation. With the extension of railway mileage, the contradiction between Zhang Zuolin and Japan is also "becoming more and more intense".

As a result of the above-mentioned measures taken by Zhang Zuolin, the national industry in Northeast China developed to a certain extent amid the oppression and humiliation of Japan. With the development of industry, the power of the national bourgeoisie gradually grew, and the demand for anti-Japanese became stronger. Although there are many contradictions and conflicts between the interests of Zhang Zuolin and the national bourgeoisie, the interests of the national bourgeoisie in getting rid of Japanese control and developing local industries are the same, and the economic activities of the national bourgeoisie have become more powerful with Zhang Zuolin's participation and support. It was precisely this combination of political power and non-governmental capital that led to the strengthening of military and political strength and economic strength, and Lin became more and more tough in the process of handling relations with Japan and the "Manchu negotiations," and Suimoto's ambition to vigorously demand the settlement of the "Manchu Meng unsolved case" was not realized during Zhang Zuolin's lifetime.

epilogue

From 1916, when Lin became the overseer and governor of Fengtian to 1928, when Huanggutun was bombed, it was the historical period when Japan forced China to accept the "21 Articles". During this period, China's political manipulation was in the hands of warlords, and the domestic political situation was in turmoil, with the head of the central government changing nine times in 12 years, with each person in office for an average of less than 16 months; 24 cabinet reshuffles, once every six months; There are 26 people who have served as prime ministers, with the longest tenure being 17 months and the shortest being 2 days. With such frequent changes of heads of government, it is not only difficult to formulate long-term policies, but also to form a central authority to effectively resist them. During this period, Zhang Zuolin's political status was not only very stable, but also climbed all the way. The commander of the 17th Division went to the overseer and governor of Fengtian, from the patrol envoy of the three eastern provinces to the last head of the Beiyang government, the generalissimo of the Chinese army and navy. This kind of political contrast highlights Zhang Zuolin's position in handling relations with Japan, and also increases the number of scholars who study Zhang Zuolin's negotiations with the "Manchurians," but for a long time, due to complicated reasons, few people have discussed this aspect, and they generally regard Zhang Zuolin as a tool of Japanese imperialism to invade Northeast China, and even say that he is a traitor, a lackey, a bandit, and a "martial artist." In fact, no matter from the perspective of Zhang Zuolin's attitude and stance in the "Manchurian negotiations", the strategies and measures he adopted, as well as the interests he represented with his practical actions, or from the analysis of the results, can we not get it? Lin" and "Ichijie Wufu" conclusions. Of course, it is not possible to talk about his patriotism, because what he loves is power, and the power of a warlord is based on the territory of the country, the army in his hands, and the taxpayers under his control, and if he wants to seize power, keep power, or expand power, he must protect the land, the armed forces, and the taxpayers, and these three are the most important aspects of national sovereignty. So we pass? Lin's discussion of the contradictions and conflicts that occurred during the "Manchu negotiations" between Lin and Japan around the "21 Articles" can lead to the following conclusions:

First, Zhang Zuolin did resist the "21 Articles" as much as he could, and sometimes actively resisted it. Although Zhang Zuolin climbed to the position of head of the Beiyang government at the end of his political career, he only served as the head of state for one year. Even so, he remained a magistrate for most of his political career. After the war, he declared the "independence" of the Northeast, but he only did not pay taxes to the central government economically, and still obeyed the central government diplomatically, and in his political vision, the Northeast has always been a part of China. Since the signing of the "21 Articles," Japan has "tried to coerce and perform the contract" whenever it encounters a crisis, and Zhang not only refuses to do so, but also often "urgently urges local officials and people not to rent out their premises, and those who violate them will be punished." This is a rare and valuable situation for a local warlord. Some people say that the strict order of Xun Lin has made such a strict order, "the Japanese have repeatedly tried to rent commercial land to the people, but there is no one who has done it", and "the eleven articles are equivalent to waste paper". This is an exaggeration. However, it is indeed a fact that during this period, Japan was often restricted and blocked everywhere within the jurisdiction of Zhang Zuolin in order to fulfill the requirements of the "21 Articles."

Second, the content of Zhang Zuolin's boycott is what Japan wants the most, and it is also most closely related to China's sovereignty and Northeast interests. The geographical concept of "South Manchuria" and the issue of sphere of influence and the issue of commercial lease rights are the main means for Japan to expand its sphere of influence in Northeast China. The issue of the establishment of consulates and police stations, and the issue of "Manchurian independence" are the core contents of national sovereignty. The arms supply, joint ventures, and railroad issues are the concrete means by which Japan expands its economic aggression, and Zhang Zuolin has adopted resistive measures that are sometimes overt and sometimes extremely tough, and no matter what the purpose is, they objectively play a role in safeguarding the interests of the nation and the people.

Third, Zhang Zuoshuang's "21 Articles" resistance is limited, selective, and lacks consistency. We can find from the above historical facts that his method of resisting the "21 Articles" in the "Manchurian Negotiations" was more to put pressure on the central government, constantly giving advice to the central government, or adopting a two-faced approach, trying to avoid direct confrontation with Japan, and he always left himself a lot of room for maneuver while opposing the "21 Articles". This is the weak and incomplete side of his opposition to the "21 Articles".

Taiwan scholars believe that the assassination of Zhang Zuolin, as the last head of the Beiyang government, by Japan, "can prove that he was tough on the outside world, refused to lose his sovereignty, and caused evil to be seen by the other people. "At the end of his reign, it was not heard that it had concluded any secret treaty with Japan and Russia to lose power and humiliate the country, which shows that it had a good relationship with its neighbors. Japan's murder of his head of state is rare in world history, and Zhang Zuolin's death is indeed related to his tough resistance to Japanese aggression, but looking at Zhang Zuolin's life, there are both toughness and weakness; There are merits in safeguarding sovereignty, and there are also faults in losing power and humiliating the country. He is an extremely complex historical figure, and the only way to evaluate him correctly is to study it in depth and comprehensively, starting from respecting historical facts, placing them in the historical context in which he lived. This article is not a comprehensive review of Qian Lin, but only focuses on his strategy against Japan in the "Manchurian negotiations", so the other side of him is not discussed in depth.

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