Möngke Khan died, leaving behind three younger brothers: Kublai Khan, Hülegü, and Ali Buge, to become the future Great Khan of the Mongol Empire. Pen × fun × Pavilion www. ｂｉｑｕｇｅ。 infoCopy URL Visit Hulegu Since becoming the Khan of Persia in 1256, he did not claim to inherit the throne of the Great Khan because he was far away from the Mongols. All that remains are Kublai Khan and Ali Buge. As a young son, Ali Buge had become the ruler of the Mongol proper, and camped in the Mongol capitals of Hala and Lim. As the ruler of the Mongol region, he prepared to convene Kuriltai in Mongolia to ensure that he would be elevated as Great Khan. And Kublai Khan acted before him. He led his army north from Wuchang to establish a base camp in Shangdu Province on the Sino-Mongolian border (near present-day Duolunoer between Chahar and Rehe), where he had earlier established his summer garrison. In 1260, he was proclaimed Great Khan by his henchmen, his army. He was 44 years old at the time.

According to Genghis Khan's laws, the hasty election was unofficial. Traditionally, Kuriltai was supposed to be held in Mongolia, and the delegates of Genghis Khan's four Ulus were called before the meeting. Ali Buge, at the instigation of Möngke's prime minister and the Nestorian disciple of the Kereb tribe, was now unhesitating to take the title of Great Khan with Lin Wu. In China, the Mongol generals who controlled Shaanxi and Sichuan leaned toward Ali Buge's side, but Kublai Khan soon won the armies of these two provinces over his side. Kublai Khan's lieutenants defeated Ali Buge's army in eastern Ganzhou (in Gansu), a victory that cemented Kublai Khan's ownership of Mongol China. Kublai Khan advanced his advantage toward the Mongols, and at the end of 1260 he spent the winter on the banks of the Onjin River, south of Hala and Lin; And Ali Buge retreated towards the upper reaches of the Yenisei River. Then Kublai Khan mistakenly assumed that the war was over, and after leaving an ordinary army with Lin, he returned to China. At the end of 1261, Ali Buge made a comeback, expelled the garrison, and marched against Kublai Khan. Two battles were fought on the Gobi border. The first battle Kublai Khan won, however; He again mistakenly did not pursue Ali Buge, and after 10 days fought a second battle, which, although fierce, was not decisive.

On Ali Buge's side were Haidu, the head of the Ogedai clan and ruler of the Yemili region of Tarbagatai, and Alhll (or Alllhli), the king of the Chagatai sect, who had helped Arukhu take the Chagatai Ulus from his cousin's wife, the Ulukhunai. As a result of this support, Ali Buge's forces rivaled those of Kublai Khan, until near the end of 1262, when Aruhu turned his back on Ali Buge and defected to Kublai Khan (see below, p. 331). This unexpected betrayal changed the situation. When Kublai Khan drove out Ali Buge's men and reoccupied Horin, Ali Buge was forced to fight Aruhu in the Ili River valley. Ali Buge was held back by two armies and finally surrendered to Kublai Khan in 1264. Kublai Khan wide

He was forgiven, however, and some of his main supporters were executed, including the Nestorian prime minister, Polus. Out of an abundance of caution, he imprisoned Ali Buge as an important prisoner until his death in 1266.

After the dispute within the family was over, Kublai Khan calmly resumed his plan to conquer the Song dynasty. Song Duzong (r. 1265-1274) relied on the traitor Jia Nidao, whose rule made the efforts of his prominent generals go to naught. After Duzong's death, Jia Rudao supported the four-year-old boy Emperor Gong (r. 1275-1276) to ascend to the throne and manipulated the government under the name of Emperor Gong. In his war against the Southern Song Dynasty, Kublai Khan was fortunate to have two prominent generals: Boyan and Ashu (Ashu was the grandson of Subutai and son of Uliang Hatai), and was supported by the Uighur Ali Hague. In 1268, Ashu set out to lay siege to Xiangyang and Fancheng, two cities that controlled the lower Han River basin in Hubei. This famous siege, which lasted five years (1268-1273), was marked by many heroic battles, such as the heroic death of two heroic Chinese generals, Zhang Gui and Zhang Shun, who were ordered to reinforce Xiangyang by water and died in the line of duty (1271). Xiangyang defender Lu Wenhuan put up a stubborn resistance. Later, in 1272, Ali Hague brought two famous Muslim engineers from Mesopotamia, Aladdin in Mausiri and Ismail of Sheila, and with the siege weapons they brought with them, they finally broke the resistance of the besieged inhabitants. Fancheng was captured in February 1273, and Lü Wenhuan, distraught by court intrigues, surrendered to the Mongols with the city of Xiangyang in March of the same year. Now with the Mongols controlling the lower reaches of the Han River, Boyan and Ashu descended the Yangtze River and succeeded in conquering important locations in eastern Hubei (Hanyang, Wuchang, and Huangzhou), important locations in Anhui (Anqing, Chizhou, Wuhu, Taiping, and Ningguo), and important places in Jiangsu (Nanjing, Zhenjiang) in 1275. Then, Boyan invaded Zhejiang, occupied Changzhou, and arrived in the Song capital and the big city of Hangzhou. The Empress Regent cedes Hangzhou to the Mongols in horror in January-February 1276. On February 25, 1276, Boyan brought the little emperor to Kublai Khan, who treated him well. From this, we can judge the progress made by the Mongols since the time of Genghis Khan; After two generations, the semi-primitive people on the banks of the river have risen to the level of a people with a long civilization.

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The south was still to be conquered by the Mongols, and the Chinese there insisted on stubborn resistance. Ali Hague captured Changsha, an important city in Hunan, and Guilin in Guangxi (1276). Kublai Khan was forced to fight his rebels in Mongolia, a war that gave a brief respite to the Southern Song generals who sought to re-establish power along the coasts of Fujian and Guangdong. However, the Mongols returned to China under the leadership of General Soko, sequentially occupying the ports of Fujian Province (Fuzhou and Quanzhou, 1277) and Guangdong Province (Guangzhou in 1277 and Chaozhou in 1278). China's last group of "patriots", led by the heroic Zhang Shijie, took refuge in a ship at sea with the newly established 9-year-old little prince of the Song Dynasty, Song Dixuan. On April 3, 1279, near Wushan in the southwest of Guangzhou, he was attacked by a Mongol navy, and his ship was destroyed (either occupied or routed), and the little Song Emperor drowned.

For the first time, the whole of China, including the south, fell into the hands of Turko-Mongol conquerors. This was a cause that neither the Tuoba Turks in the 5th century nor the Jurchen Tungusic in the 12th century realized, and Kublai Khan finally accomplished it. It was he who fulfilled the hazy dreams of 10 centuries of "all the dwellers", that is, generations of nomadic herders. The herders who roamed the steppes, "all the descendants of the gray wolf and the red hind", along with Kublai Khan, eventually became the masters of China, the most densely populated region of sedentary farmers in all of Asia. However, the conquest was slow enough to offset the bad effects it had. Indeed, although Kublai Khan, the descendant of this nomad, may have conquered China, however, he himself had already been conquered by Chinese civilization. Thus, he was able to recognize the consistent goal of his policy: to become a true "Son of Heaven" and to make the Mongol Empire the Chinese Empire. The road to achieving this goal is open. As soon as the Song dynasty fell, he became the legitimate monarch of an empire with a long history of 15 centuries. His dynasty, named the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1368), wanted only to follow in the footsteps of the 22 Chinese dynasties that had preceded him. The obvious sign of sinicization is: "After Kublai Khan recaptured Hala and Lin from Ali Buge, he never went to live there." In 1256-1257, he chose the upper capital province near present-day Chahar East and Duolunor as his summer residence, and built a group of palaces there. In 1260, he established his capital in Beijing. In 1267, he began to build a new city in the northeast of the former Beijing complex, which he called Dadu, that is, the "great capital", also known as the "City of Khan", and Western tourists called it "Khan Bali". It became the winter residence of the Mongol monarchs, and the upper capital remained their summer residence.

3. Kublai Khan's wars against Japan, Indochina, and Java

As China's new emperor, Kublai Khan demanded allegiance from the other powers of the Far East, which were regarded as his natural satellites in accordance with traditional Chinese policy, both positive and negative.

Although Goryeo was already garrisoned by the Mongols, it was still in a state of frequent rebellion. The Goryeo court had retreated to Ganghwa Island, which was far away from Seoul, and directed resistance on the island. However, in 1258, Gaozong [Wang Zong] sent his son Wang Dian to the Möngke court as a hostage. After Kublai Khan succeeded the Great Khan, he sent the young prince back to rule Goryeo, and he also made him his son-in-law. From then on, the Goryeo Dynasty became an obedient vassal through this marriage with the Yuan Dynasty royal family.

Kublai Khan also demanded allegiance from Japan. The Japanese regent Hojo Tokimune (r. 1251-1284) refused twice (1268 and 1271). In 1274, Kublai Khan sent a fleet of 150 ships carrying an expeditionary force to the Japanese archipelago, and the army embarked on ships off the southeast coast of Goryeo, razed Tsushima and Iki Islands, and landed in Hakata (Ryuki) Bay on Kyushu Island near Shimonoseki. But the steppe cavalry were not accustomed to these sea expeditions. Moreover, their intention was only for them to form the core of the invading army, and the main body of the army was an auxiliary army composed of particularly war-weary Chinese and Koreans. In any case, the daimyo of Kyushu, who were hidden near the fortress of Maizhuki, put up a fierce resistance, and after a brief retreat (supposedly forced by Chinese artillery), they forced the invaders to retreat to their ships.

In 1276, Kublai Khan reiterated his demand for Japanese allegiance, which was again rejected by Hojo Tokimune. After a long period of preparation, Kublai Khan attacked Japan in June 1281 with a larger fleet of 45,000 Mongols and 120,000 Chinese-Goryeo who landed at Hakata (Ryosaki) Bay in Kyushu and Eagle Island and Pinglu in Hizen Province, respectively. However, this time, the Mongol army (which completely left their environment) and the Chinese-Goryeo army (which had little military value) still failed to withstand the wrath of the Japanese. In particular, a terrible hurricane on August 15, 1281 dispersed or destroyed the Mongol fleet, and the Mongol forces lost their foundations, were either captured or killed.

Kublai Khan's progress in Indochina was not much better. The region was divided into four major powers: Annam (which included the Tonkin Plain and later the French kingdom of Annam, which later became the northern part of the Tonkin Plain in present-day North Vietnam), was more influenced by Chinese culture; The Champa state (formerly the central and southern part of French Annam, now South Vietnam), which was ethnically Malayan-Polynesian (alay-plynsan) and culturally Indian (Brahmanical and Buddhist); The state of Cambodia, or Khmer, belongs to the pure Khmer race, which is also culturally Brahmanical and Buddhist; Myanmar is ethnically Burmese-Tibetan, culturally Indian, and its religion is Buddhism; The Baigu subject country of Myanmar is a pure Khmer race and believes in Buddhism. In 1280, under duress from Kublai Khan's emissaries, the Champa Maharaja [king] Dhara Norman IV accepted the protection of the Mongols, but the people refused to recognize the country's division into Chinese administrative regions (1281). Then, Kublai Khan sent a small army, led by Sukegu (Chinese translation of the name of the capital), from Guangzhou to Cham by sea, and instigated the capital to capture the capital of Cham (1283), near present-day Pingding. However, the Mongol army failed to defeat the Cham guerrillas and was forced to return to the ship. In 1285, Kublai Khan sent a large army into Indochina—this time through the Tokyo Plain from Langshan—under the command of Kublai Khan's son Thn or than, who attacked the Annamites. Tuohuan won near Beibei and continued his march to Hanoi, but was later defeated at Chilong in the delta and retreated to China. At the same time, SEKO tried to attack Tokyo from behind in the south. After landing in Cham Port, he went north to Nghe An and Thanh Hoa to join forces with Tohwan, however, he was attacked by the Annamite at the Gulf of Tequit and was killed (1285). In 1287, a new Mongol army reoccupied Hanoi through the Tokyo Plain, but the Mongols were unable to hold the city and had to evacuate Hanoi. King Chen Injong (r. 1278-1293) of Annam successfully resisted various attacks and returned to the capital in triumph. However, in 1288, he wisely admitted that he was a vassal of Kublai Khan. Since he refused to go to Beijing to meet him in person, Kublai Khan decided to detain his envoy Tao Ziqi (1293). Kublai Khan's successor, Emperor Timur, finally reconciled with his former "traitors" (1294). The Cham king also fulfilled his obligations as a vassal.

In 1277, the Mongols captured Bhamo in Burma, and the road to the Irrawaddy River valley was opened to the Mongols (Marco Polo vividly described the battle, in which the Mongol archers made better use of Burmese war elephants). In 1283-1284, they invaded Burma again, and the Burmese ruler, King Naroti of Bagan (r. 1254-1287), abandoned the capital and fled. However, it was not until 1287, during the Third War, that the Mongols descended south to the Irrawaddy River valley to Bagan, the capital of Burma, where they plundered the city. In 1297, the new king of Bagan, Cho Tho, admitted himself to being a subject of the Mongols in order to avoid disaster. In 1300, there was a quarrel among the chiefs of the small Shan states of Burma over the succession to the throne of Bagan, and the Mongols once again intervened in Burma in order to restore order