However, what made Hua Feng feel a slight headache was still to come, and he semi-compulsively wrote down these things, which was a long process, even for him now.

"The hadron themselves are further divided into two categories. A particle made up of three quarks is called a baryon, which is what we often call a 'matter' particle, including protons and neutrons (baryon and lepton are both members of the fermion family, and fermions are actually another name for ordinary matter particles). Particles made up of pairs of quarks are called mesons, and they are particles that carry fundamental forces, although there are other mesons (the carriers of these forces and other mesons are also called bosons).

It only takes two quarks (they are oddly named 'up' quarks and 'down' quarks) to explain the structure of protons and neutrons. A proton is made up of two upper quarks and one lower quark held together by strong force, while a neutron is made up of two lower quarks and one upper quark held together by strong force.

The force itself can be seen as the exchange of gluons, which in turn are made up of quark pairs and are therefore mesons. The teacher's voice continued......

Just as the leptozonics copied for three generations, so did the quarks. Although only two quarks are needed to explain the nature of protons and neutrons, the two generations of quarks copied are heavier than the next, one of which is called the 'odd' quark and the 'can' quark, and the heaviest generation is called the 'bottom' quark and the 'top' quark. Like leptons, these particles can be produced in high-energy experiments (and thus must have been present in large numbers at the time of the Big Bang), but quickly decay into their lighter counterparts. While it is not possible to isolate a single quark, particle accelerator experiments have provided direct evidence of the existence of all six members of the quark family, the last (top) quark was found in 2007 by scientists at the Fermi Laboratory in Chicago.

Studies of the mass and other properties of quarks have shown that there can be no more generations of quarks, only trigroups of quarks and trigroups of leptons. Fortunately, the standard Big Bang model also suggests that there could not have been more than three generations of particles, otherwise the pressure caused by the extra neutrinos in the very early universe would have driven the universe to expand too quickly, so that the remaining helium content would not be consistent with the observations of extremely old stars (see αβγ theory, nucleosynthesis). This is one of the most wonderful pieces of evidence that both the Standard Model of particle physics and cosmology deviate from the fundamental truth in their description of the behavior of the universe.

However, with the exception of the earliest moments of the Big Bang, the second and third generation particles played little role in the evolution of the universe or the behavior of its contents. Everything we see in the universe can be explained by two quarks (upper and lower) and two leptons (electrons and electron neutrinos), and indeed, since individual quarks cannot exist independently, the behavior of everything we see can still be approximated quite accurately in terms of electrons, neutrons, and protons, plus electron neutrinos, and the four fundamental forces, which have been known since 1932.

The University of Cambridge in the United Kingdom recently issued a press release saying that researchers from the university collaborated with colleagues at the University of Birmingham to complete the study. According to the communiqué, electrons are generally considered indivisible. However, in 1981, some physicists proposed that under certain special conditions, electrons can be split into magnetic spins and charged holes.

Researchers at the University of Cambridge placed extremely thin "quantum wires" on top of a metal plate with a distance of about 30 atoms in width, and placed them at an ultra-low temperature of about minus 273 degrees Celsius, then changed the applied magnetic field and found that the electrons on the metal plate split into spins and holes when they jumped onto the wire through the quantum tunneling effect.

The researchers say that the study of the properties of electronics has set off a semiconductor revolution, which has led to the rapid development of the computer industry, and there is an opportunity to actually study the properties of spins and holes, which may promote the development of the next generation of quantum computers and bring about a new round of computer revolution.

2009-03-27 Sohu Science News: According to the US National Geographic magazine, scientists announced this week that they have discovered a strange new particle at the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in Illinois, USA, which is completely impossible to explain with existing theories, and it will potentially break all known rules of the existing composition of matter. The newly discovered particle, called Y(4140), does not conform to the known pattern of the composition of the two substances, and even scientists have not yet determined what Y(4140) is made of.

Scientists have long believed that quarks can be combined together to form other large subatomic particles in a variety of effective ways, one mode is the meson formed by quark-antiquark pairs, and the other mode is the baryon composed of 3 quarks, such as protons and neutrons. "But it's amazing that this new particle that we found doesn't belong in these quark combinations," said Jacob Koenigsberg of the University of Florida in the United States. ”

Particle physicists say that the discovery of Y(4140) particles, one of the members of a family of particles with similar unconventional properties observed in these labs, is produced by two beams of particles colliding violently with each other at nearly the speed of light, so that the probability of discovering a new particle Y(4140) is about 20 parts per billion. Scientists at Fermila have discovered that Y(4140) particles often produce particles that contain a bottom quark called a B+ meson during the decay process. After sifting through trillions of proton and antiproton collisions at Fermilab, scientists identified a small sample of B+ mesons that decayed in an unconventional way. Further analysis showed that these B+ mesons could decay into Y(4140). In addition, scientists have also discovered that the Y(4140) particle can decay into a pair of other particles——— J/psi and phi particles, and physicists believe that it may be a combination of cane and anti-cane quarks. However, for such a composition, its decay properties are unconventional.

Physicist Masanori Yamauchi, a spokesman for Japan's High Energy Laboratory, said that this is the first time that a new, unexpected new particle in the Y state can decay into J/psi and phi particles. This Y state may be related to the Y (3940) they discovered earlier, and may be another example of an alien hadron containing quarks. These foreign combinations of quarks do not belong to the known mesons and baryons, and theoretical physicists are deciphering their true properties, and experimentalists are continuing to find more of them.

The discovery of this new particle challenges particle physicists who understand how quarks combine to form matter. Together with the announcement of the discovery of a rare single-top quark and several other discoveries in the United States, physicists are actually getting closer to finding the Higgs boson, the so-called God particle, but they now have to rethink how matter is made. The findings were published in the latest issue of Physical Review Letters.

But there is probably more to the universe than we see, and there are both observational and theoretical reasons to think that there is much more dark matter than light matter in the universe. A large part of dark matter is likely to be particles that are neither hadron nor lepton.

Particle beam weapons use accelerators to accelerate protons and neutrons and other particles to a high speed of tens of thousands to 200,000 km/s, and launch them through electrodes or magnetic beams to form very fine particle beams for bombardment targets.

According to whether the particles are charged or not, they can be divided into charged particle beam weapons and neutral particle beam weapons. Particle beam weapons can destroy targets tens of kilometers away in space, but their power is attenuated in the atmosphere and they can only attack targets several kilometers away.

In the 21st century, the development of weapons has entered the atomic and molecular world, and nuclear weapons are the application of atomic theory. The protons in the center of the atomic substance are positively charged, the electrons are negatively charged, and the neutrons are neutral. Substances known as particles are electrons, protons, neutrons, and other positively and negatively charged ions. Particles can only be used as weapons if they are accelerated to the speed of light. Particle beams are emitted into space, which can melt or destroy targets, and after hitting the target, a secondary magnetic field will occur to destroy the target.

Particle beam weapons emit high-energy, directed, intense, near-light-speed, subatomic beams (charged and neutral) to destroy satellites and incoming intercontinental ballistics with tremendous kinetic energy**. Even if it cannot directly destroy the nuclear warhead, the powerful electromagnetic field pulse heat generated by the particle beam can burn the electronic equipment of the first class, or use the γ rays and X-rays that occur around the target to disable or destroy the electronic equipment of the target. Charged particle beam weapons are usually used in the atmosphere. Neutral particle beam weapons are used outside the atmosphere and are primarily used to intercept intercontinental ballistics (ICBSs) flying in the booster and mid-stages**.

Whether it is a charged particle beam weapon or a neutral particle beam weapon, as a weapon system, they are mainly composed of five parts: particle beam generation device, energy system, early warning system, target tracking and aiming system, and command and control system. Among them, the part that best illustrates the characteristics of this weapon is the particle accelerator and energy system, which are briefly described below:

1. Particle beam generation device:

The high-energy particle beam generator is the core part of the entire particle beam weapon system. It is used to create beams of high-energy particles and gather them into a narrow beam that gives it enough energy and enough intensity.

Particle beam generation devices mainly include particle sources, particle injectors, accelerators and other equipment. Chief among them is the study of high-energy particle accelerators suitable for use in weapons. Induction linear accelerators, electron induction accelerators, and radio frequency linear accelerators all have the potential to be accelerators for high-energy particles.

Although the technology of existing civilian particle accelerators can be borrowed, it is too bulky to be used as a weapon system. The 500 billion electron-voltive electron electron accelerator used by the Fermi National Laboratory in the United States has a diameter of about 2 kilometers in diameter alone, and its two pole turning magnets, each 6 meters long and weighing 13 tons, and the fourth-stage focusing magnet is 2 meters long and weighs about 4 tons, and the two magnets add up to more than 1,000 pieces, which together form a large ring with a circumference of as long as 6 kilometers, which is placed in a tunnel 6 meters deep underground.