The transience of life and the impermanence of the human world make people always yearn to find the unconditional and absolute behind the finite, empirical existence. This search for metaphysical questions was aptly described by Kant as the desperate pursuit of the continent by a wanderer on a turbulent sea. However, the cruel thing is that the chase is endless, and mankind will never be at peace, because the continent is invisible to the naked eye. The answer to what people think is that it has been proven time and time again to be nothing more than "foggy peaks that appear in the distance and icebergs that will soon melt".

The core content of Kant's philosophy is to reveal the vanity of past metaphysical explorations within the limits of theoretical reason, and to re-lay the foundation for metaphysics from the perspective of practice. The historical contribution of Kant's philosophy is to open up a space for the human spirit of an age, which can be at least in old age, an old pedant of genius, who especially observes time. A contemporary biographer once wrote that Kant visited his old friend Gray every day, "and he left in the afternoon to go to his friend's house." By that time, Gray was sleeping in a recliner. Kant sat down next to him, continued to think, and slowly fell asleep. After a while, the banker Rafman arrived punctually, and he, like Kant, sat down and took a nap. At a certain time, Mott Bai walked in and woke the three of them. A lively conversation began. At seven o'clock, the party ended on time, and the friends went home. I often hear the residents of the street say that it is impossible to reach seven o'clock, and Professor Kant has not yet walked there. ”

In his later years, Kant had a very rigid daily schedule. A friend of his wrote: "Kant gets up at five o'clock every morning, whether winter or summer. The servant came to the bed punctually at a quarter past four and three to wake him up, and did not leave until the master got up. Sometimes, Kant was drowsy and begged to rest him for a while. But according to Kant's prior orders, the servant never gave in. As soon as he got up, Kant began to study in his study and then went to class, mechanically and punctually. Dinner with friends in the afternoon, the meal time is generally long. Go to bed at 10 p.m. One contemporaneous wrote: "After many years of habit, he was able to burrow into the bed with particular lightness. Usually when it is time to sleep, he first sits on the bed, lies down gently, pulls one quilt corner to his shoulder, then tuck it under his back, and then skillfully arranges the other quilt corner in the same way, and then covers the rest of his body. After wrapping himself in a cocoon like this, he waited for sleepiness to come. ”

Like the schedule, Kant's environment must be well organized. A misplaced pair of scissors or a knife, or a misplaced chair in the room, can make him distraught and fidget. Kant died in Königsberg in 1804 at the age of 80. His last words were, "Good! ”

Looking back at Kant's life, one can feel that Kant's life was very typical of the life of a German intellectual: dull, punctual, unfashionable, and often a little unorthodox. But in this inconspicuous lifetime, Kant made the greatest contribution in the history of human philosophy. After he spoke, future generations could no longer continue to engage in philosophical speculation in the same sense as he did. His doctrine represents a turning point in the history of philosophy. In his eulogy, Schelling wrote: "No matter how much those who claim to be commentators and followers may simplify or misinterpret his doctrine, and no matter how harsh opponents may attack him, Kant's spirit will not be damaged in the slightest." It will illuminate the future of the philosophical world in its perfect and unparalleled form. ”

So, what exactly is the core of Kant's philosophy? The answer to this question is not simple. There have been many, many interpretations of Kant's philosophy. However, we may be able to correctly grasp Kant's original meaning if we look at the following questions as what Kant is really interested in: What is it that plays a fundamental role in and behind the visible reality? That is, the iceberg that rests when in all conditional existence. During the Warring States Period, the monarchs of various countries were divided into generals, and they were in charge of civil and military affairs. King Zhao Huiwen is a well-known example of Lin Xiangru and Lian Po as a general. "Xunzi Wangba" says that the phase is "the chief of a hundred officials", so "Warring States Policy: Qi Ce" said: "So Liang Wangxu ascended the throne, took the old minister as the general, sent a messenger with a thousand catties of gold, a hundred cars, and hired Meng Weijun." "The highest governor of the Chu State is called Ling Yin, and the second to Ling Yin is the military attache Shangzhu State, and the official title is different from that of other countries.

Under the emperor of the Qin Dynasty, the Prime Minister's Mansion, the Taiwei Mansion and the Yushi Dafu Temple formed a central organization. The prime minister inherited the emperor's will to govern the state affairs; Taiwei is in charge of the national military; The Imperial Historian was the Emperor's Secretary-General and overseer. The prime minister has the highest official position, and is called the prime minister, commonly known as the prime minister. At the beginning of the Han Dynasty, the Qin system was followed, and after Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, although the status of the prime minister was respected, the power gradually shrank. For example, Huo Guang led the affairs of the great Sima and assisted in the affairs of the country, and his power was far above the prime minister. At the end of the Western Han Dynasty, the prime minister was renamed Da Situ, Taiwei was renamed Da Sima, and Yu Shi Dafu was renamed Da Sikong, known as the Three Princes, also known as the Three Divisions, all of which were prime ministers. However, by the time of Emperor Guangwu of the Eastern Han Dynasty, "although the three dukes were placed, the matter was returned to the Taiwan Pavilion", see "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty: Zhongchang Tongbiography", the three dukes only dealt with routine affairs, and the Taiwan Pavilion became the actual prime minister's mansion.

The so-called Taige refers to the Shangshu Tai, a Shangshu institution, and was gradually called Shangshu Province in later generations. Jin is called Shangshu Province, and Liu Song is called Shangshu Temple. The chief is Shang Shuling, and the deputy is Shang Shu. In view of the great power of Shangshutai in the Eastern Han Dynasty, Emperor Wei changed it into a peripheral executive body, and set up a Zhongshu Province headed by Zhongshu Jian and Ling, who were in charge of the central secrets. During the Northern and Southern Dynasties, in view of the growing power of Zhongshu Province, the emperor set up a subordinate province headed by Shizhong to restrict Zhongshu Province. In this way, a system of division of duties between the three provinces of Shangshu, Zhongshu and Menxia of the Central Committee of the Dynasty was formed: Zhongshu Province took the decree, Menxia Province audited, and Shangshu Province implemented. The Sui Dynasty avoided the use of the word "Zhong", changed the province of Zhongshu to the province of internal history, and changed the service to Nayan. During the reign of Tang Gaozong, Empress Wuhou and Xuanzong, the names of the three provinces changed several times: Shangshu Province was called Zhongtai and Wenchangtai; Zhongshu Province is called Xitai, Fengge, Ziwei; Menxia Province is called Dongtai, Luantai, and Huangmen. The heads of the three provinces are also prime ministers and discuss national affairs together.

In the Tang Dynasty, because Tang Taizong served as Shangshu Ling, this official was no longer awarded in the future, and the left and right servants were used as prime ministers. After Tang Gaozong, the left and right servants no longer participated in the decision. Tang Taizong also thought that the official position of Zhongshu Ling and Shizhong was too high, and it was not easy to give people, and he often used other officials to add the name of "Senate to the government", "Senate to gain and lose", "Participate in the governor's affairs" and the like, and Gaozong later performed the duties of the prime minister called "Tongzhongshu Menxia Sanpin" and "Tongzhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi", which was referred to as "Tongping Zhangshi" in the Song Dynasty, and "participated in the governor's political affairs" as the deputy minister.

In the Song Dynasty, the central government was the Zhongshu and the Privy Council, which were in charge of civil and military affairs, and were known as the two mansions. The Privy Council is similar to the Taiwei Mansion in the Qin Dynasty, and the chief and deputy heads are privy envoys and deputy envoys.

The term prime minister was first seen in "Han Feizi". "Han Feizi Xianxue": "Therefore, the officials of the Ming Lord, the prime minister must start from the state department, and the fierce generals must be sent to the army." In addition, in the past, literati often used to call the prime minister, but they were not official titles. The official title was established in the Liao Dynasty. In addition to Jiuqing, the central organ of the Liao Dynasty, there were also lieutenants in charge of the security of the Beijing Division, who were later called Zhijinwu, and Jiangzuo Shaofu, who was in charge of the construction of the palace, and later called Jiangzuo Dajiang.

Zhuqing has its own subordinate officials, not all listed here, only a little explanation of Lang Zhongling's (Guangluxun) subordinate officials and Lang: the Han Dynasty had Taizhong Doctor, Zhong Doctor, and Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty changed his name to Guanglu Doctor. The doctor's "discuss" and "impermanence is only dictated by the edict" is the nature of the dismissal of officials in later generations.

Lang is the general name of the emperor's bodyguards, and there are Lang Lang, Zhong Lang, Shi Lang, and Lang Zhong. The adviser to deal with it is more special. The other Lang are all "in charge of the door, out of the car to ride".

In addition, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty also placed the period gate and Yulin as the subordinate officials of Guangluxun, and the period gate was the attendant of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty when he was in the micro-line, and the "Hanshu Hundred Officials and Ministers Table" noted that he was convinced and said: "With the period of the door to the micro-line, and then to the official." Yulin is the official of the guard, "Hanshu Baiguan Gongqing Table" Yan Shigu note: "Yulin is also the official of the guard, saying that it is like the disease of the feather, such as the forest of many also." One said that the feather is so the wings of the king. They are all a category of Lang, so they are called Period Gate Lang and Yulin Lang.

Let's talk about the addition of officials in the Han Dynasty, which is an additional official position in addition to this official.

In the Han Dynasty, there were servants, servants, and officials. In addition, you can enter and exit the palace and become a close confidant of the emperor. If you add to the matter, you can take charge of the consultant to deal with it. The imposition of officials on court officials could be supervised and impeached. In later generations, he became the head of Menxia Province and became a subordinate official of Menxia Province in the middle of the matter.

The additional officials of the Han Dynasty also included Zhongchang Attendant and Loose Cavalry. In the long service in the forbidden to serve the emperor, the Eastern Han Dynasty changed to the use of eunuchs, scattered riding is the emperor's horseman, the palm "offer can be replaced". Cao Wei was collectively known as the Loose Cavalry Standing Attendant, preparing the emperor's advisers and taking charge of the regulations. The Northern and Southern Dynasties were the head of the Jishu Province, the emperor's attendant advisory body, and later generations entered the lower province.

Let's talk about the six.

Shangshu was originally a subordinate official of the Shaofu in Jiuqing, and after the development of Shangshutai, the affairs increased, so he divided Cao to govern affairs, and each Cao set up a Shangshu person, which was the predecessor of the central ministries in later generations. From the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Northern and Southern Dynasties, the Ministry of Cao has not yet been customized, and the Sui Dynasty was determined to be the six departments of officials, people, rites, soldiers, criminals, and workers, which belong to Shangshu Province. Tang avoided Taizong and changed the Ministry of Civil Affairs to the Ministry of Households. Since then, the six-ministry system, which is the central administrative organ, has remained basically unchanged.

Three provinces and six ministries

The responsibilities of the six departments are roughly as follows:

1. The Ministry of Officials, the appointment and dismissal, resumption, performance appraisal, promotion and promotion of officials, etc.

2. The household department is in charge of land, household registration, taxation, finance, etc.

3. Ministry of Rites, ceremonies, imperial examinations, schools, etc.

Fourth, the Ministry of War, in charge of the military and political affairs of the whole country.

5. The Criminal Department, in charge of criminal law, prison litigation, etc.

Sixth, the Ministry of Engineering, in charge of engineering, construction, tuntian, water conservancy, etc.

The head of each ministry is called Shangshu, and the deputy head is called Shiro. The department has divisions, each part of the Sui and Tang dynasties is four divisions, the first division is named after the headquarters, "with its chief and administrative order", and the remaining three divisions are named after their positions. For example, in the Tang Dynasty, the first division was still called the Ministry of Officials, and the remaining three divisions were the Division, the Division, and the Examination of Merit. The subsequent ministries have been adjusted and their names are different. The head of the division is called Langzhong, and the deputy head is called Yuanwailang. The subordinate officials have all affairs, principals, etc.