It was dark inside the pit, and when he raised his head, he could only see a small hole, and the ancient bluebird couldn't help but say, "How deep this must be!" ”

Lan Ling looked at the hole above his head, estimated it and said, "It must be more than five hundred meters, right?" ”

Gu Qingniao thought for a while and said, "More than five hundred meters, it doesn't sound like it's very far. ”

"It doesn't sound very far, but it doesn't seem to be too far on flat ground, but it's very deep when you go up and down. After all, the thickness of the earth's crust is only 17 kilometers in average thickness, and 500 meters is more than one-thirtieth of the earth's crust, which is probably a lot. ”

Earth's crust (qiào), a geological term, refers to the solid shell composed of rocks, the outermost layer of the earth's solid sphere, an important part of the lithosphere, and the interface between the earth's crust and the mantle is a Moholovich discontinuity (Moho surface) through the study of seismic waves.

The chemical composition of the upper layer is mainly oxygen, silicon, and aluminum, and the average chemical composition is similar to that of granite, which is called granite layer, and some people also call it "silicon-aluminum layer". This layer is thin at the bottom of the ocean, especially in the ocean basin floor, and even absent in the central Pacific Ocean, which is a discontinuous layer.

The lower layer is rich in silicon and magnesium, and the average chemical composition is similar to that of basalt, which is called the basalt layer, so some people call it the "silicon-magnesium layer" (another way of saying that the entire crust is a silicon-aluminum layer, because the aluminum content of the lower layer of the earth's crust still exceeds that of magnesium; The rock part of the upper mantle has a very high magnesium content, so it is called a silicon-magnesium layer); It is distributed in both continents and oceans, and is a continuous circle. The two floors are separated by a Conrad discontinuity.

Crustal thickness editing

The earth's crust is the outermost layer of the earth's solid surface structure, with an average thickness of about 17 kilometers, of which the continental crust is larger, with an average thickness of about 39-41 kilometers. The crust is thicker in high mountains and plateaus, up to 70 km; Plains and basins have relatively thin crusts. The oceanic crust is much thinner than the continental crust, only a few kilometers thick.

The Qinghai-Tibet Plateau is the thickest place on Earth, with a thickness of more than 70 kilometers. The crust in the submarine valley of the central Atlantic Ocean near the equator is only 1.6 kilometers thick, and the crust of the abyssal trench in the eastern part of the Mariana Islands in the Pacific Ocean is the thinnest, the thinnest on Earth.

Crustal structure

Crustal structure

Inner element editing

There are 112 elements in the periodic table of chemical elements, of which 92 are elements, as well as more than 300 isotopes

Crustal movement

Crustal movement

Present in the shell.

The most abundant chemical element in the earth's crust is oxygen, which accounts for 48.6% of the total weight; followed by silicon, accounting for 26.3%; The following are aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium. The lowest abundances were astatine and francium, accounting for about 1023. The above 8 elements accounted for 98.04% of the total weight of the crust, and the remaining 80 elements accounted for 1.96%.

The percentage of atoms with the average content of various chemical elements in the earth's crust is called the atomic Clark value, and the chemical element with the highest number of atoms in the earth's crust is still oxygen, followed by silicon, and hydrogen is in third place.

About more than 99% of living organisms are composed of 10 chemical elements in high concentrations, namely oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, calcium, phosphorus, chlorine, sulfur, potassium, sodium; The content of magnesium, iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, and molybdenum is less; Whereas, silicon, aluminum, nickel, gallium, fluorine, tantalum, strontium, and selenium are very small and are known as trace elements. It shows a certain correlation between man and the earth's crust in the composition of chemical elements.

The most abundant element in the earth's crust is oxygen, but the most abundant metal element is aluminum.

Aluminium accounts for 8.3% of the total amount of the crust, twice as much as iron, and about one-third of the total amount of metal elements in the crust.

Aluminum is of great significance to the production and life of human beings. It has a very small density, good electrical and thermal conductivity, good ductility, and is not prone to oxidation, and its main disadvantage is that it is too soft. In order to give full play to the advantages of aluminum and make up for its shortcomings, it is often made into alloys when used. Aluminum alloys are very strong but much lighter in weight than ordinary steel. It is widely used in the manufacture of airplanes, train cars, ships, daily necessities, etc. Due to its good conductivity, it is also used for power transmission. Due to its good corrosion resistance and reflection to light. Therefore, it also shows its skills in the use of solar energy.

Evolutionary History Editor

Archean

(about 2.5 billion years ago)

Archean is the oldest and longest generation of geological time, the primordial crust and the primordial

crust

crust

The initial stages of the occurrence and development of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, sedimentary sphere and organisms.

The Archean strata are composed of deep metamorphic ortho and paragneiss. The oldest known age of these is more than 4 billion years. It is believed that a small granite crust appeared on Earth before that. The occurrence of paragneiss, which is formed by sedimentary metamorphism, indicates that there was a primitive atmosphere and hydrosphere at that time, and there was pure physical and chemical weathering. These crystalline metamorphic rock basements are covered by a layer of less metamorphic greenstone belts, among which there are volcanic and sedimentary rocks, which formed in the depression zone of the ground at that time and only later underwent metamorphism. It is between 3.4 billion and 2.3 billion years old. It is presumed that there were many small granitic land masses on the surface of the early Archean Earth, and between them there were paleooceans of varying depths. Later, the small land masses were combined to form a larger continental plate during migration. These oldest land masses are scattered across the continents, the core of what is commonly referred to as the stable land mass, the craton or paleoshield zone.

Archean crustal movements and magmatic activity were both extensive and intense; Volcanic eruptions are frequent, which allows the atmosphere and hydrosphere to form. The pristine ocean may be larger than we realize, but the average depth is much shallower. It was during this period that the world's abundant marine layered deposits of metamorphic iron-manganese deposits and gold deposits formed by magmatic activity were formed. The atmosphere at that time was probably rich in carbonic acid, water vapor, and volcanic dust, with only a small amount of nitrogen and abiotic oxygen. The sea water is also acidic mineralized water (which was gradually neutralized later), and the land is scorching and barren. In some suitable shallow sea environments, some inorganic substances undergo chemical evolution into organic substances (proteins and nucleic acids), and then develop into living prokaryotic cells, constituting some bacteria and cyanobacteria with simple morphology without a true nucleus. This only appeared in the late Archean period.

In general, the Archean is the formative stage of the primitive geographical sphere, the land is the primitive desert landscape, and the water is the place where life is conceived and born. At that time, the exchange of matter and energy between the earth's crust and the universe and with the mantle was much stronger than at any time since.

Proterozoic

(2.5 billion to 600 million years ago)

In the Proterozoic, the continental crust gradually changed from small to large, thickening from thin, and volcanic activity decreased relatively rocky

crust

crust

It also changes from meta-basculity to acidity. The Lower Proterozoic has a large accumulation of detritic detritus, which greatly favors strong granitic activity and leads to the formation of large intrusions. Due to the decrease in the concentration of CO2 in the atmosphere and the increase of Ca and Mg ions in the water, carbonate rocks with chemical deposits began to appear. It will have a direct impact on the evolution of magmatic processes, leading to the emergence of alkaline derived rocks. As the free oxygen in the atmosphere increases, an oxidizing environment also begins to emerge. As a result, minerals such as oolitic hematite and sulfate, as well as the first red beds, were produced in the later period. The appearance of organisms has not had a large impact on the environment, so there are no large biochemical deposits in the Proterozoic. Moraine rocks have also been found at the end of the Proterozoic, the product of the world's first Great Ice Age.

By this time, prokaryotes had evolved into eukaryotes, and aerophobic organisms had transformed into aerobic organisms (a turning point called the Yuri point, which occurred when the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased to one-thousandth of the current atmospheric oxygen concentration), and the number of species increased from one thousandth to the current atmospheric oxygen concentration. At this time, the plant kingdom on the earth was greatly developed for the first time, and a large number of primitive lower plants that could carry out photosynthesis and respiration appeared, such as green algae, wheel algae, brown algae, red algae, etc. These micropaleontologies have been used to divide and contrast strata. In the late Proterozoic, primitive animals also appeared. For example, the Ediacara fauna in Australia, which contains fossils of aquatic chordates such as sponges, jellyfish, arthropods, flatworms and molluscs. Fossilized cavernous needles have also been found in North America.

There were many crustal movements in the Proterozoic, including the Wutai movement in China, the Luliang movement, the Chengjiang movement, the Jixian movement, etc.; In North America, there are Knoller Movement, Hudson Movement, Grenville Movement, Belt Movement, etc. The fold belt formed by the previous orogenic movement gradually put together the original small land masses to form the ancient continent, and later became the ancient fold base and core of each continent, and the Precambrian land platform (or platform) was exposed, which only accounted for 1/5 of the land area. According to paleomagnetic studies, both the Loren paleocontinent in North America and the ancient continent in Africa had multiple pole shifts during the Proterozoic (E. l

vi

G. et al., 1975; D. E. Pipe

，1976）。

Paleozoic

(600 million-230 million years ago)

The Paleozoic era includes the Cambrian, Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian. According to research

crust

crust

600 million to 700 million years ago, the continents underwent many divisions and mergers, and at the end of the Proterozoic (Late Precambrian), various scattered land masses combined to form a pancontinent. During the Cambrian period, the pancontinent was divided, becoming Gondwana in the south and North America, Europe and Asia in the north, separated by the pre-Western Sea, the pre-Caledonian Sea, the pre-Urals Sea and the pre-Tethys Sea (pre-Paleo-Mediterranean). At the end of the Ordovician, the Caledonian orogeny began. By the Devonian period, the Pre-Caledonian Trough had folded into mountains, and ancient Europe and North America formed a single continent. During the Late Carboniferous, the Hercynian movement led to the disappearance of the former Hercynian trough, merging the European and American continents with the Gondwana continents. By the late Permian, the Pre-Ural Sea had also disappeared, the Eurasian continent was formed, and the whole world became a new pan-continent.

According to the research of Wang Quan et al. (1979), the nature of the Sino-Korean ancient land in northern China is very different from that of the Yangtze ancient land in the south, and the latter is very similar to many cases in the Gondwana ancient land in the southern hemisphere. They believe that the Yangtze paleocontinent was part of the Gondwana paleocontinent in the Early Paleozoic, and then split and drifted northward, and it was not until the Late Paleozoic that it collided and merged with the Sino-Korean paleocontinent, and the Qinling-Huaiyang Mountains between the two were a ground suture. Ophiolite stacks (a layer of oceanic crust and mantle eruption composed of serpentine, peridotite, gabbro, and pillow-shaped mafic volcanic rocks) are also found here. The study of paleomagnetism in China also believes that in the late Proterozoic, the Yangtze paleocontinent was roughly located in the northern part of the Indian Ocean, separated from the ancient land of China and North Korea in the north.

The crustal movement and the separation of land and sea in various geological epochs have brought great changes to the geographical environment: the division of continents causes sea transgression, and the merger of continents causes sea retreat; It also has a significant impact on biological evolution. Since the Cambrian, the number of continental divisions and marine non-vertebrate families has increased and decreased significantly.

During the Cambrian period, the pancontinent split and caused transgression, the continental shelf was widespread, and marine non-spineous chordates flourished unprecedentedly, among which arthropod trilobites accounted for 60% of the total fossils, brachiopods accounted for about 30%, and others accounted for only 10%. At this time, marine plants also show signs of transition to terrestrial plants. For example, algal coal found in Cambrian strata in China is an example. During the Ordovician seafloor expanded extensively, brachiopods, hornstones, penstones, nautilus and corals became worldwide species. A primitive fish, the jawless fish (armoured fish), also appeared. In addition to the continuous development of marine animals in the Silurian period, due to the drastic changes in the earth's crust and environment, marine animals entered the continental freshwater area, and real fish, jawed fish, and vascular plants with water transport tissues suitable for shore growth were also born. Since the Devonian period, in the Late Paleozoic, the continents tended to merge, the sea retreat continued to occur, and many marine chordate habitats disappeared, and their species and numbers were greatly reduced. On the other hand, fish are in full bloom and terrestrial plants are flourishing. The earth's surface has since ended the era of deserts and ozone-free layers. By the heyday of Carboniferous and Permian amphibians, the plant kingdom also developed from sporophytes to gymnosperms. In the Carboniferous and Permian continents, large forests dominated by ferns were distributed, which became an important coal-making period in geological history.

Mesozoic

(230 million-70 million years ago)

The Mesozoic era includes the Triassic, Jurassic, and Cretaceous. There are many existing data to prove that the re-division of the pancontinent occurred in the Mesozoic, that is, in the Late Triassic, mainly in the Jurassic and Cretaceous, and continued until the Cenozoic. This pan-continent is the original direction

crust

crust

The north and south poles are extended, the equatorial part is narrower, and the Tethys Sea (ancient Mediterranean) exists. During the Triassic-Jurassic period, North America split from Africa, the North Atlantic Ocean began to expand, and the pancontinent was divided into the ancient continent of Laua (Lawrence and Asia) in the north and the ancient land of Gondwana in the south. During the Jurassic-Cretaceous period, South America and Africa were divided, and the South Atlantic Ocean began to expand. Africa and India also separated from Antarctica and Australia (both of which were still together) during the Jurassic and began to form the Indian Ocean. During the Cretaceous period, the North Atlantic widened to the north, the South Atlantic had a certain size, India drifted northeastward, and the Indian Ocean also expanded, while the ancient Mediterranean tended to shrink.

There were strong orogenies in various parts of the Mesozoic Era, with the Paleo-Alpine movement in Europe, the Nevada movement and the Laramie movement in the Americas, and the Indochinese movement and the Yanshan movement in China. At this time, folding, faulting, and magmatic activity are extremely active. A series of Chinese-style uplifts and depressions have been formed in the eastern part of China, and the formation of many non-ferrous and rare metal deposits is related to the magmatic activity at this time, and minerals such as coal, oil and oil shale are also formed in the fault basin. The basic outline of our continent was also established at this time.

The biological kingdom is very much more developed than the Paleozoic. Gymnosperms that appeared at the end of the Paleozoic era have become the most prosperous phylum in the Mesozoic, they reproduce by seeds, and the fertilization process is completely free from the dependence on water, and is more suitable for terrestrial habitats. This is yet another leap forward in plant evolution. The development of terrestrial plants such as cycads, ginkgo biloba, and pines and cypresses has not only created favorable conditions for coal-forming (such as the Jurassic coal seams, which are widely distributed in the world), but also provided a rich food base for the development of reptiles.

Throughout the Mesozoic Era, reptiles became the most abundant chordates of their time. On land there are herbivores and feeders

Dinosaurs of flesh, ichthyosaurs and plesiosaurs in the sea, and pterosaurs in the air. At the same time, lizards, turtles, turtles, crocodiles, frogs and insects also appear. Ammonites are also very prosperous among marine non-vertebral chordates. Therefore, some people refer to the Mesozoic Era as the age of dinosaurs, ammonites or cycads. But by the end of the Cretaceous period, most of these once-flourishing species had become extinct, and only some remained. The primitive birds and mammals, which had already emerged at that time but were in a weak position, entered a spectacular Cenozoic era; Angiosperms have also flourished ever since.

Cenozoic

(70 million years ago - 21st century)

The Cenozoic era, which includes the Old Tertiary, the New Tertiary, and the Quaternary, is the most recent generation. Following the Mesozoic Era, the seafloor continued to expand, Australia separated from Antarctica, East Africa split, and India collided with the Eurasian continent. In the Tertiary period, strong crustal movements took place, known as the Neo-Alpine movement in Europe and the Himalayan movement in Asia. In the Paleo-Mediterranean (Alpine-Himalayan belt) and the Pacific Rim belt, a series of huge folded mountains were formed. Differential upward and downward movements such as arching and faults also occurred in the ancient platform area, and red beds were widely developed in the fault basin. This orogeny and the accompanying sea retreat brought about significant changes in the natural geography inherited from the Mesozoic.

Globally, the Old Tertiary surface was predominantly warm and humid in climate. After the intense orogeny, the atmospheric circulation system, especially the regional circulation system, also changed, and in many places tended to dry and cold. The uplift of the Tibetan Plateau in western China has a great impact on the eastern monsoon circulation system, especially in South China, which has become a warm and humid forest landscape different from that of the same latitude. In the Quaternary, due to the further cooling of the climate in the temperate zone and the poles, large-scale glaciation took place on the earth, and it experienced many glacial and interglacial changes. Organisms also change due to changes in habitat.

In the plant kingdom, the Old Tertiary was characterized by the great development of angiosperms, and the plant community changed from the original monotonous coniferous forest to the evergreen broad-leaved forest with abundant flowers and fruits. When the climate tends to dry and cold, the vegetation in many places has undergone dry biotic phenomena. At the beginning of the Neo-Tertiary period, the grassland dominated by monocotyledonous herbaceous plants appeared, and in the Quaternary period, the tundra appeared. The animal kingdom is characterized by the unprecedented prosperity of mammals, so the Cenozoic era is also called the age of mammals. Angiosperms flourish in hot and humid forest areas, which play a great role in promoting the development of mammals. The flourishing of insects is also associated with the development of angiosperms. The wide distribution of angiosperms and insects in turn promotes the prosperity of birds. When the grassland area expanded, many herbivorous grassland fauna appeared among the ungulates and rodents, and with it, the number of carnivores also increased.

Of particular importance was the appearance of humans in the Quaternary. This is an event of great significance in the history of the earth. After a complex process of development, human beings have gradually become an important factor in disturbing, controlling and transforming the natural environment. Therefore, the Quaternary is also called the "Spiritual Era".

Motion editing

evidence

Since its formation, the earth's crust has been moving all the time, and this movement causes the structure of the earth's crust to change constantly. An earthquake is a reflection of the movement of the earth's crust that is directly felt by people. The more general movements of the earth's crust are carried out over a long period of time, slowly, and are not easily noticeable by people, and can only be detected by long-term observation with the help of instruments. For example, geodetic data prove that the Himalayas are still rising at a rate of 0.33~1.27 cm per year.

Although the movement of the earth's crust in geological time cannot be known through direct measurement, it has left traces in the earth's crust. In mountainous areas, where the rocks are exposed, the sedimentary rock layers are often tilted, curved, or even fractured and staggered, which is the result of the deformation of the rock layers under force. In the coastal area of Rongcheng, Shandong Province, China, the former beach is now 20~40 meters above the sea level. In the areas of Zhangzhou and Xiamen in Fujian, the former beaches are also about 20 meters above the sea level, indicating that the earth's crust is rising in these places. About 7 kilometers of ancient channels of the Haihe River have been found on the bottom of the Bohai Sea in China, which indicates that the Bohai Sea and its coastal areas are areas with a large modern decline rate. Another example is the beautiful Yuhuatai produced in Nanjing, these smooth pebbles with beautiful patterns are the natural relics of the ancient riverbed. A large number of pebbles are piled up in Yuhuatai, indicating that there was a river here in the past, and after the earth's crust rose, the river channel was abandoned, and it became the Yuhuatai gravel that is much higher than the water surface of the Yangtze River.

Mechanical properties

1. Compressive crustal movement; 2. Tensile crustal movement; 3. Torsional crustal movement; 4. Mixed mechanical properties of crustal movement.

Causes of crustal movement

The causes of different types of crustal movements are different.

Crustal movements and causes of the ecliptic plane as a reference

The plane in which the Earth orbits around the Sun is called the ecliptic plane. The position change of the earth's crust and its constituent rocks with the ecliptic plane as a reference is the largest crustal movement.

Crustal movement

This type of crustal motion can be divided into three subcategories: first, the change of the position of the earth's crust relative to the ecliptic plane due to the rotation of the earth; second, the change in the position of the earth's crust relative to the ecliptic plane due to the earth's revolution; The third is the change of the tilt angle of the earth's axis, which changes the position of the earth's crust relative to the ecliptic plane.

This type of crustal movement causes changes in day and night, seasons and climate, causing changes in the gravitational pull of the sun and moon on the earth, which in turn triggers other types of crustal movements.

The causes of this type of crustal movement: caused by the origin and evolution of the solar system.

Crustal movements and causes of the Earth's axis as a reference

The position change of the earth's crust and its constituent rocks with the earth's axis as a reference is inferior to the first type of crustal movement, causing the displacement of the earth's poles and magnetic poles. The change that occurs with respect to the Earth's axis, i.e., the Earth's poles have moved. This type of crustal movement causes changes in the geographical coordinates of the earth's crust and the ground, and may also cause changes in seasons and climates, and changes in the gravitational balance of the Earth's Sun and Moon.

The causes of this type of crustal movement: the layered earth is formed by the rotation of the outer sphere of the earth under the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon; There may also be other causes.

Crustal movements and causes that occur with geographic coordinates as a reference

The crust and its constituent rocks take geographical coordinates as the reference to the position changes, and the movement of this type of crust forms large-scale crustal uplift, uplift and depression subsidence, forming mountains, plateaus, plains, basins, and forming mountains and valleys.

The main sources of power for this type of crustal movement are as follows:

1. Denudation, transport and sedimentation of water and wind

This type of geological process not only forms crustal movements of different scales, but also forms sediments and sedimentary rocks that are the material basis for the formation of mountains and plateaus.

The crustal movement formed by water erosion, transport and sedimentation reduces the relative height of the earth's crust, strips and fills the depressions, and makes the earth's crust tend to be balanced.

Wind denudation, transport and sedimentation, wind denudation, transport and sedimentation of rocks:

Wind erosion occurs in arid areas with little rainfall, denuding not only alpine plateaus, but also gully depressions.

The carrying distance of the wind varies from close to the distance of the wind, and the nearest one is just leaving the denudation site, and the far one can reach tens of thousands of kilometers. Its sedimentary areas vary in size, with large areas ranging from several million square kilometers to several million square kilometers.

The deposition of wind, which can be on land, can be in water; It can be in depressions and plains, in mountains and plateaus; It can form quasi-plain sediments and mountain sediments.

Aeolian topography is prone to change and migration. Aeolian sedimentation, which can form clastic rocks with high dip occurrences, and can form sedimentary fold structures.

The deposition of wind can occur at the same time or alternately as the deposition of water.

2. The centrifugal force generated by the Earth's rotation from the poles to the equator

As for the experiments of the movement of crustal materials in the direction of the Earth's equator under the centrifugal force of the Earth's rotation, geomechanics has done simulation experiments to prove this.

3. When the earth rotates from west to east under the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, blocks of different masses in the earth's crust move from east to west. In the absence of gravitational attraction on other planets, the material of all parts of the earth's crust moves in a uniform circular motion with the rotation of the earth. Under the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon, due to the uneven composition of the various parts of the earth's crust, there is a differential movement along the zonal direction, forming extrusion and separation.

The earth's crust is inhomogeneous in its constituent substances over a large area or a small area.

In a large area, there are large blocks in the land such as Eurasia, Africa, North and South America, and Antarctica, and several large blocks in the ocean, such as the Pacific Ocean, the Indian Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Arctic Ocean. These large blocks are different in terms of topography, material composition, area size, geometric form, geographical location, mass, structure, etc. There are numerous small blocks within a large block. These large and small blocks in the earth's crust are affected by the gravitational pull of the sun and the moon differently, and when the earth rotates, they move at different speeds. As the Earth rotates from west to east, these large and small masses on the Earth's crust form a relative motion from east to west.

Crustal movements and causes of ground objects

The crustal movement that occurs with the ground object as the reference, and the relative movement distance of the crustal constituent material rocks is small, which belongs to the crustal movement in a small range. In addition to the large-scale crustal movement can cause this kind of crustal movement, earthquakes, volcanoes, collapses, meteorite impacts, some biological activities, etc. can cause this kind of crustal movement.

Single-cause and multi-cause theories of crustal motion

According to the number of factors that cause the movement of the earth's crust, the theory of crustal motion can be divided into two schools: one is the single-cause crustal motion school and the other is the multi-cause crustal motion school.

The single cause of crustal movement school believes that there is one main factor that causes crustal movement, and the traditional crustal movement theory belongs to this school, such as continental drift theory, seafloor expansion theory, plate theory, geomechanics, mosaic theory, depression theory, fault block theory, multi-cycle theory, etc.

The multi-cause crustal movement school believes that there are many factors that cause the movement of the earth's crust, which belongs to the modern crustal movement theory. This theory was put forward by Jiang Fashi in China. According to the reference object of crustal motion, the movement of the earth's crust is divided into: 1. The movement of the earth's crust with the galactic surface as the reference, 2. The movement of the earth's crust with the ecliptic plane as the reference, 3. The movement of the earth's crust with the earth's axis as the reference, 4. The movement of the earth's crust with the geographical coordinates as the reference, 5. The movement of the earth's crust with the surface object as the reference, and 6. The movement of the earth's crust with the spherical surface as the reference. Different types of crustal movements are caused by different factors, different types of crustal movements have different modes and results, and various types of crustal movements are superimposed on each other.

Continental drift said

German meteorologist Wegener (1880~1930) systematically put forward a geotectonic hypothesis in 1912. He believes that in the late Paleozoic era, there was only one large united paleocontinent in the world, called "pancontinent". In the Mesozoic, due to tidal friction and the extrusive force from the poles to the equator, the pancontinent began to split, and the lighter granite continents drifted on the heavier basalt mantle, gradually forming today's sea-land pattern. He believes that the mountains on the earth are also the products of continental drift, and that the Cordillera and Andes are folded mountains formed by the compression of the Pacific basalt basement when the American continent drifts westward. The island arc group in the eastern edge of Asia is the remnant of the westward drift of the continent; The southern tip of Greenland, Florida, Tierra del Fuego, etc., arc-shaped bending, are the result of westward sliding friction and shedding; The east-west Alps and the Himalayas, among other major mountain ranges, are the result of the continental squeezing from the poles to the equator. Based on the information available at the time, Wegener demonstrated in detail the theory of continental drift from the aspects of geology, topography, paleontology, paleoclimate, and geodesy. This hypothesis attracted the attention of the geological and geophysical circles at that time. However, many scholars have expressed doubts about the mechanism and law of continental drift. Since the 50s of the 20th century, paleomagnetic studies have shown that the movement of magnetic poles in geological history can only be reasonably explained by the theory of continental drift. Thus the theory of continental drift has been given a new lease of life.

Plate tectonics says

In 1961 and 1962, Dietz and Hertz of the United States proposed the "seafloor expansion theory". On this basis, in 1968, the French geologist Le Pishun and others pioneered the "plate tectonics theory", which has now become the most popular new theory of earth science.

The theory of plate tectonics divides the world's lithosphere into six plates: the Eurasian plate, the African plate, the American plate, the Pacific plate, the Indian Ocean plate, and the Antarctic plate, with some small plates in addition to the six plates. Some secondary plates can also be demarcated within the continent. Between the plates, they are bounded by straits or trenches and orogenic belts. Generally speaking, the internal crust of the plate is relatively stable; The junction of plates and plates is a zone of relatively active crust, and its activity is mainly manifested in earthquakes, volcanoes, tension cracks, dislocation, magma rise, crustal subduction, etc. Almost all of the world's volcanic and seismic activity is located near the dividing line of the tectonic plates.

The theory of plates holds that the earth's crust is born and dies. As a result of the expansion of the seafloor, the bottom of the ocean is constantly renewed, and the continents only move with the expansion of the seafloor. In the process of relative movement, the plates either open to both sides or collide with each other, thus forming the basic appearance of the earth's surface. For example, 300 million years ago, Europe and Africa were connected to North and South America, and later the Atlantic Ridge appeared, and new oceanic crust continued to form and expand to both sides with it as the central axis, so that the above continents were separated. In the past 70 million years, the Himalayas have been created due to the continuous northward movement of the Indian plate and the collision with the Eurasian plate. The Great Rift Valley is in the embryonic period when the African continent is beginning to open and crack and produce a new oceanic crust. The Gulf of Aden in the Red Sea is the result of the opening and expansion of the earth's crust on both sides, and is in the juvenile stage of the oceanic crust. The Mediterranean Sea as we know it represents the end of the development of the ocean, which is the remnant of the vast ancient Mediterranean Sea after a long period of evolution.

There are some other claims that there is no unified understanding of the driving force of the plates, such as the convection of the mantle, and the "hot spots" and "hot columns" in the mantle that arch the lithosphere and cause it to slide downward under the action of gravity to push the plates forward.

Continental drift, seafloor expansion, and plate tectonics are the trilogy of deepening and developing human understanding of the movement of the earth's crust.

The rotation of the extraterrestrial sphere is said

The theory of the rotation of the extraterrestrial sphere was proposed by Zhang Weizhi in 2012 and later revised. Jiang (Jiang Fashi) divided the crustal motion into 1. crustal motion with the galactic surface as the reference, 2. crustal motion with the ecliptic plane as the reference, 3. crustal motion with the earth's axis as the reference, 4. crustal movement with geographical coordinates as the reference, 5. crustal motion with the surface object as the reference, 6. crustal movement with the spherical surface as the reference. Jiang Shifa is a representative of the movement of the earth's crust, and the cause of the movement of the earth's crust with the earth's axis as a reference is explained by the rotation of the earth's outer sphere. Jiang reclassified the solid earth structure as shown in the following table:

The Earth tilts around its orbit and revolves, and at the summer solstice, the Earth's northern hemisphere is closer to the Sun and experiences greater solar gravitational pull than the Southern Hemisphere. During the winter solstice, the Earth's northern and southern hemispheres experience the opposite gravitational pull of the sun as it does during the summer solstice. Due to the rotation of the earth around the earth-moon mass point, the nutation of the earth, and the precession of the earth's axis produce the shaking effect of the earth. The shaking of the earth causes the outer sphere of the earth to rotate in the direction of the sun's gravity, just like the beans in a dustpan, when the dustpan is shaken, the beans will rotate in the direction of the tilt of the dustpan. The Inner Sphere of the Earth Puts a pebble in a bottle filled with water, ties a rope, holds one end of the rope and rotates the bottle, and the result is that the pebble in the bottle is always on the other side of gravity. In the same way, the Earth's inner sphere is always biased to the other side of the Sun's gravitational pull. The rotation of the Earth's outer sphere forms the movement of the Earth's poles and magnetic poles, forming the movement of the Earth's crust relative to the Earth's axis. Antarctica's rotation from low latitudes to the Antarctic position was formed by the rotation of the Earth's outer sphere.

Mantle (Ma

TLE) is between the Moho surface and the Gutenberg surface, with a thickness of more than 2800km, an average density of 4.59g/cm³, a volume of about 82.26% of the earth's volume, and a mass of the earth's mantle accounting for about 67.0% of the earth's total mass, which greatly affects the total composition of the earth's materials. The transverse variation of the mantle is relatively uniform, and according to the change of seismic wave velocity, the 1000 km surge zone is used as the interface (Repoti surface), and two sub-layers of the upper mantle and the lower mantle are further divided.

The mantle is the middle part of the Earth below the Moho surface and above the Gutenberg surface (2,885 km deep). Its thickness is about 2850km, accounting for 82.3% of the total volume of the earth and 67.8% of the total mass of the earth. Judging from the fact that the entire mantle is called transverse waves through seismic waves, it is mainly composed of solid matter. According to the secondary discontinuity of the seismic wave, the mantle can be divided into two secondary layers, the upper mantle and the lower mantle, with a depth of 650 km as the boundary.

1. Upper mantle

The average density of the upper mantle is 3.5 g/cm³, which is comparable to that of stony meteorites, suggesting that it may have a similar material composition as stony meteorites. Judging from the deep material brought out of the upper upper mantle by volcanic eruptions and tectonic movements, they are also ultramafic rocks. In recent years, when simulating the properties of mantle rocks through high-temperature and high-pressure tests, it has been found that a mixture of 55% peridotite, 35% pyroxene, and 10% garnet (the mineral composition is equivalent to ultramafic rock) is used as a sample, and the wave velocity and density are measured under temperature and pressure conditions equivalent to the upper mantle, and the results are basically the same as those of the upper mantle. Based on the above reasons, it is speculated that the upper mantle is composed of material equivalent to ultramafic rock, and its main mineral composition may be olivine, and some are pyroxene and garnet, and this putative mantle material is called mantle rock.

There is an asthenosphere in the upper part of the upper mantle, which extends from about 70 km to about 250 km, which is characterized by the appearance of low-velocity zones of seismic waves. Physical experiments have shown that the decrease in wave velocity may be caused by the partial melting of the asthenosphere material, which reduces its strength. According to the estimation of the temperature in the ground, the temperature of the asthenosphere can reach 700-1300°C, which is close to the melting point temperature of ultramafic rocks at this pressure, so some fusible components or components with low melting points can begin to melt. It is calculated that the molten material of the asthenosphere may account for only 1%-10%, and the molten material is scattered between the solid materials, thus greatly reducing the strength and making the asthenosphere more plastic or fluid. Since asthenosphere material is close to the critical state of melting, it has become an important source of magma.

2. Lower mantle

The average density of the lower mantle is 5.1 g/cm³, and the strong internal pressure that occurs here causes the decomposition of olivine and other minerals in the upper mantle into simple oxides such as FeO, MgO, SiO2 and Al2O3. Compared with the upper mantle, the change in the chemical composition of the species may be mainly manifested by a relative increase in iron content (or an increase in the Fe/Mg ratio). As the pressure increases with depth, the density and wave velocity of the substance gradually increase.