Volume 4 The Appearance of the Sword Demon Chapter 168 Is This a Rebellion? . .

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Appearance:

Following...

Daybreak...

Shattered Empty City...

Light and light sweetness.

On the glass cup, this fruit tea is pleasing to the eye. The dazzling array is probably the pulp.

Fresh.

Yu Yan doesn't like politics.

For nearly a year, she has almost stayed at home, a proper housemaiden.

After all, there is a talent like Yu Dabi at home, so why go out.

There must be a way of checks and balances.

In the study, there was a pair of large characters written with a brush, and Yu Yu couldn't remember clearly, which was probably given to her by an elder in the Broken Sky Sect.

She is actually the most annoyed by these, it seems that in the eyes of those uncles and grandparents, this is called the art of the emperor. Just like the absurd dispute between Chen Jinzhi and the nobles last time, it seems that it is just balancing the old and new forces.

"There must be checks and balances... ”

Yu Yan suddenly muttered to herself, and her appearance couldn't help but be overshadowed:

"Is this a rebellion ... ”

She is talking about a group of so-called "hot-blooded youths" led by Ashi, who have become more and more arrogant recently. Chen Jinzhi's disregard has created a paralysis of the administrative system, and the empire is hovering on the verge of chaos.

"Your Majesty. ”

There was a man who looked like a civil official bowed down and said:

"It's a revolution, they say. ”

"Revolution?"

“。。。 ”

Postscript:

Let's make up the afterword of the first three chapters, I forgot it yesterday, sorry.

One

A note on the day before yesterday, i.e. (5 September 2020).

I'm sorry.

I had an appointment and had to take a day off.

- SS white-clothed Chang'an

Two

Wife.

The insider, the person in the house. It refers to the person who speaks of his wife. The written language is also called the inner person, the inner helper. Honorific title other people's wives are called virtuous helpers. In addition, Neiren is also used as a synonym for palace maids.

Basic explanation

(1) Insider, in ancient times, generally referred to wives and concubines: now and when they die, friends and ministers have not wept, and insiders are crying and losing their voices. Later, he came to call himself his wife: this is an insider, and she rarely attends such parties.

(2) insiders, female officials in the palace; Palace maid: The queen mother of the king's inner body and the female palace ordered the inner mother to ask the inner people.

Explain separately

内 nèi inside, as opposed to "outside": inside. inside and out. Default. Outback. Cabinet. 内行 (háng). Connotation.

Called a wife or a relative of the wife's family: an insider. Parents-in-law. Brother-in-law. Man rén Evolved from an ape, an animal capable of making and using tools for labor, and able to communicate using language: humans.

Others, others: "Man is a sword, I am a fish". Treat people with enthusiasm. People's quality, temperament, reputation: shame, like people.

Explanation of the title

Refers to a person from his own family. "Xunzi Faxing": "Zeng Zi said: There is no alienation of insiders and relatives of outsiders. “

In ancient times, it generally referred to wives and concubines.

"The Book of Rites: Under the Tan Bow": "Now and when he dies, his friends and ministers have not shed tears, and everyone in them has cried and lost their voices. Zheng Xuan's note: "Insider, wife and concubine." "Confucius Congzi Jiyi": "If the dead are two people from the dead, if this is thin for the elderly, it is thick for the woman." Qing Sun Zhiwei's poem "Swallow Tower": "When I don't see Lu Wenbo, when the insiders cry." “

to call one's wife.

Qing Zhao Yi "Guanjia Pickled Vegetables into Forty Rhymes": "Ru vegetables are poor and gentle, and they are artificial. Yang Mo's "Song of Youth" Part 2, Chapter 7: "This is an insider." She's not in good health. “

Lady of the palace.

Also refers to the palace maid. "Zhou Li, Tianguan, Temple People": "The precepts of the people in the king and the female palace." Zheng Xuan's note: "Insider, female emperor." "The Book of the Later Han Dynasty and Empress Xi Deng": "Kang Yi Empress Dowager has been in the government for a long time, she is afraid, and she is not in court. The Queen Mother asked her insider. "Qing Wu Weiye's "Yonghe Palace Ci": "The only thing to do is to chase Yang Xian tea, and the number of people in it is reduced to Zhaoyang Food." “

The maid of the palace.

"Sui Shu Fangling Wang Yong Biography": "The prince's left concubine, Tang Lingze...... Ambiguous, self-advanced in musical skills, bowing to musical instruments, pro-teaching insiders, favoring arrogance, and guiding illegality. Tang Zhanghu's poem "Green Oriole": "The insiders have sung "Spring Oriole", and the flowers are dancing softly. Tang Cui Lingqin's "Jiaofang Record": "When a maid enters Yichun Courtyard, she is called an 'insider', also known as a 'former person', and she is often in front of her. “

Refers to the female servants of bureaucratic aristocratic families.

"The Biography of Yuan Ang in Southern History": "Mian (Xu Mian) begged Ang to pass the cup from the insider, Ang Liang did not come out for a long time, begged for it, Ang did not get it, and ordered five or six people. One of the poems of Qing Qian Qianyi's "Bingxu South Farewell to the Late Hou Family Prostitute Brother Dong": "The embroidered ridge is gray, the golden valley is remnant, and the insider's red sleeves are dry. “

Synonymous appellation

The emperor called his wife Zitong; The prime minister called his wife Madame. The literati called it clumsy; Yashi is called a broom. The merchant is called the cheap; The scholar called his wife. Xiucai is called a lady; The farmer is called Aunt Mother-in-law. Those who have support are called wives; People are called wives. Referred to as daughter-in-law; The son is called the wife. Called girlfriend at the time of marriage; After marriage, it is called the right wife. Fang people call children and mothers; Hunan people call him. Superior to lover; The bay is called Uchiko. The name of transoceanic ink is Darling; The native is called that mouth. Those who are reluctant to have a wife are heartfelt; The one who doesn't have a wife is called a baby. When you are affectionate to your wife, you call it dear; When the wife is disgusted, she calls that. The northerners call it homely; Henan people call it the head of the house; The southerners call their wives cousins; Sichuan people call their wives mother-in-law; Chizhou people call their wives pot-burners.

It can be seen that the "insider" in Ouyang Qing's mouth refers to Arou.

Three

"Bitter wine hurts in the throat and heart." This phrase appears several times in the book.

Bitter wine hurts in the throat and heart, which originally means that when you drink the bitter wine, you feel a faint pain in your heart. The metaphor is that there is something in the heart that has not been said or that there is no one to tell about the heart, and it is very uncomfortable, "bitter wine enters the throat and the heart hurts" comes from a text on an emoji. This emoji comes from the "Of course I choose to forgive her" green hat series, probably to express a bitter feeling, such as a good friend falling out of love!

In addition, there is a bilingual phrase in Chinese and Japanese, such as "Sweet Mood Suddenly Becomes Bitter".

Bitter wine into the throat and heart painNext sentence: Bitter wine into the throat and heart hurt, and there is no her in the dream.

Now for today's chapter.

One

"There must be checks and balances... ”

Yu Yan suddenly muttered to herself, and her appearance couldn't help but be overshadowed:

"Is this a rebellion ... ”

"Your Majesty. ”

There was a man who looked like a civil official bowed down and said:

"It's a revolution, they say. ”

"Revolution?"

“。。。 ”

I have borrowed from this paragraph, and I have to admit it, so as not to mislead the reader.

As follows:

In the minds of the French people, the Bastille has always been a symbol of feudal autocracy. On July 14, 1789, the air over Paris was filled with angry voices: "Go to the Bastille!" As the angry crowd poured in and occupied the Bastille, King Louis XVI of France asked his surroundings in horror, "Is this a rebellion?" and one of the attendants replied, "No, Your Majesty, it was a revolution." Soon after, the Bastille was razed to the ground, and a sign was erected on its ruins that read: "Here is the burial of the Bastille." On January 21, 1793, Louis XVI was guillotined to the cheers of "Long live the people".

From ordinary high school textbooks, ideology and politics, compulsory one.

Although I am not comparing Miss Feather to Louis XVI, it is worth knowing and understanding about the French Revolution.

The French Revolution (French: La Révolution Française, English: The French Revolution), also known as the French bourgeois revolution, was a revolution that broke out in France on July 14, 1789, and the Bourbon dynasty and the monarchy under its rule that ruled France for many centuries collapsed within three years. During this period, France underwent an epic transformation: the old aristocratic and religious privileges were constantly under attack by liberal political organizations and people protesting in the streets, and the old ideas were gradually replaced by new democratic ideas such as natural human rights and the separation of powers. Regarding the time of the end of the French Revolution, there are many opinions in the world history circles, and it is difficult to reach a consensus. In France, the Thermidorian coup d'état was widely used as a sign of the end of the Revolution, and the Thermidorian coup d'état overthrew the radical centralized rule of the Jacobins.

On July 27, 1794, the burgher revolution of the French Revolution came to an end. In July 1830, the people of Paris launched the July Revolution and established the July Dynasty headed by Louis Philippe, which ended the French Revolution completely. A regime represented by the Thermidorian party was established in the coup d'état. French history entered a period of preservation of the gains of the Revolution.

Historical background

Economic aspects

The 18th century was a time when the French economy was deteriorating due to inflation, which reduced the purchasing power of society, and in the 80s of the 18th century, the landlords further weakened the income of the peasants due to non-payment of taxes and rents. The Roman Catholic Church, the largest landowner in the country, tithes the grain. Tithes ostensibly relieved the pressure on the people of the king's taxes, but in reality they were a mountain for the poor who hungered every day.

Domestic checkpoints restrict domestic economic activity and act as a barrier to transportation when intermittent crops fail. According to the data, the expenditure of poor households on bread accounted for half of the household income in 1788 and 80% in 1789. The unsalable commodities and the high unemployment rate caused by the influx of peasants into the cities have all caused social unrest.

France's coffers were empty due to Louis XV's excessive participation in wars and unwon wars (especially the Seven Years' War), and the financial pressures of participating in the American Revolutionary War. At that time, the total amount of French national debt was 2 billion francs. The social burden of war debts, coupled with the incompetence of the military under the monarchy, weighed down the provision of social services to retired veterans. At the same time, the lavish life of the aristocracy, especially Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette, who lived in Versailles, greatly increased the financial burden of the common people. The old and inefficient fiscal system cannot afford government debt, and an unreasonable tax system makes it worse.

One of the reasons for the revolution was the drought in France in the spring of 1788. In 1788 France had not yet recovered from the drought that had occurred three years earlier, and the last drought had led to the large-scale slaughter of livestock due to insufficient fodder, resulting in a lack of fertility and a large number of idle farmlands that used livestock excrement as the main fertilizer.

On July 13, 1788, a hailstorm of 40 millimeters in circumference struck the farmland, causing a large amount of land to be wiped out. In the winter of the same year, France was in a state of bitter cold. This led to a sharp increase in the price of bread on the eve of the French Revolution (from 8 sous, a 4-pound loaf of bread under normal conditions, to 12 sous) at the end of 1789), an increase in the number of sick and mortal rates, mass famine and widespread malnutrition. The famine even spread to many parts of Europe, and the government lacked sufficient capacity to transport food to the affected areas.

Enlightenment

In the 17th and 18th centuries, there was an intellectual and cultural movement in Europe and the United States that believed that the order of the universe could be grasped through reason. Since then, human history has begun to "enlighten" in terms of ideology, knowledge and information, and has begun the development process of modernization and modernity. Immanuel Kant, a German philosopher, used the Enlightenment spirit of "the courage to seek knowledge" to elaborate on the role of human reason. He believed that the Enlightenment was the ultimate era of human emancipation, liberating human consciousness from immature ignorance and erroneous states. The main figures of the Enlightenment in the early 18th century were Voltaire and Montesquieu, who were strict in their academic style. Later in the century, the style of learning changed, and Diderot, Rousseau, Pofon, Condiac, Durgo, and Condorcet were all encyclopedic philosophers, who devoted themselves to editing the Encyclopédie, one of the great achievements of the century.

The resentment and longing brought about by the Age of Enlightenment, as well as the social and political factors that arose from it, were also important reasons for the emergence of the French Revolution. This includes resentment against the absolutist monarchy; Those commercial cities that were connected to the Netherlands, England and other countries also attracted Dutch exiles because of the failure of the Patriot uprising in the Netherlands, which invisibly contributed to the political ideology of the French Revolution; the resentment of intellectuals and businessmen against the privileges and domination of the aristocracy; the resentment of the peasants, workers and the bourgeoisie against the privileges of the traditional aristocratic lords; resentment against the privileged clergy and desire for religious freedom, resentment against the noble bishops of the relatively poor rural clergy, and by extension, resentment against Catholicism, the influence of the Protestant-controlled Lesser Brotherhood on other religious institutions; the desire for freedom and a republican system, especially as the revolution progressed; and the king's dismissal of Ann Robert Jacques Durgo, who was regarded as the representative of the people, and later Jacques Necker, among the financial advisers.

The Enlightenment provided free revolutionary ideas for revolutions such as the French Revolution, which overthrew the Ancien Régime in France, Montesquieu's ideas played an important role in replacing the old dynastic system of divine monarchy, and Montesquieu's assertion that the new republican political system needed a constitution based on reason.

The class factor

During the reign of Louis XV (1715-1774), the people were extremely dissatisfied with the king's rule, and they were constantly criticized in various ways. This formed the Enlightenment Movement, which emerged a large number of enlightened figures such as Voltaire, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Diderot, etc., and the ideas of natural human rights, constitutional monarchy, separation of powers, and sovereignty in the people came into being, and became increasingly popular in the hearts of the people.

Before the Revolution, the inhabitants of France were divided into three estates: the first estate: the Catholic High Clergy. (The king does not belong to any class) Second estate: nobility. The third estate: the burghers, including the bourgeoisie, the peasants, the proletarians, the lower classes, and the other strata except the first and second estates. The conflict between the old and new class forces contributed to the revolution to some extent. French titles of nobility are open, giving some of the most powerful and wealthy people of the third estate the opportunity to become nobles. Between 1700 and 1789, about 50,000 new aristocrats were added to French society. As the country's finances fell into crisis, the price of knighthood became higher and higher. On the other hand, some of the declining aristocrats were also very dissatisfied with these new aristocrats. The aristocracy itself also invested in commerce, mining, real estate and other industries, so the conceptual boundaries between bourgeois wealth and aristocratic wealth became blurred after the 18th century, but the conflict between the bourgeoisie and the aristocracy remained increasingly serious.

Direct cause

Capitalism was already well developed in parts of France in the 18th century, with many artisanal workshops and individual enterprises employing thousands of workers and advanced equipment. Strong financial capital. The bourgeoisie has become the richest class economically, but still politically powerless. The vast majority of the countryside retains the old landlord land ownership system and a strict hierarchy is practiced.

The 1st estate, made up of the Catholic clergy and the 2nd estate, was the dominant privileged class. Other citizens, such as peasants and urban commoners, formed the 3rd Estate and were in a dominant position. The highest representative of the privileged class was King Louis XVI of Bourbon. At the end of the 18th century, the contradictions between the Third Estate and the privileged classes intensified. The privileged class stubbornly asserts its privileged position. In the third estate, the peasants and urban commoners were the basic masses and the main force in the later revolutions. The bourgeoisie, on the other hand, is in a leading position by virtue of its economic power, political prowess and cultural knowledge.

On May 5, 1789, Louis XVI convened the Estates-General at the Palace of Versailles in an attempt to raise taxes on the Estates-General in order to relieve the government's financial crisis. The representatives of the third estate demanded a constitution, limiting the power of the king, and implementing reforms. Louis XVI attempted to raise taxes and convened a national council (stati generali) to vote on the decision. At the beginning, there were two types of voting, one was per ordine, that is, one vote for one rank; The other is to select a number of delegates to vote (per testa). The former is extremely unfair, with a total of three votes, and the king basically has two votes, so it is carried out in the second way, so the third estate (terzo stato) elects the representatives and the first and second estates vote.

Originally, the first and second estates had an advantage in terms of numbers, but some of the nobles of the second estate made a different choice to vote for the third estate, so the third estate won by a narrow margin of seventeen votes (291 votes for the first estate, 270 votes for the second estate, and 578 votes for the third estate). Even though the matter had come to this, Louis XVI reversed course and demanded a tax increase. As a result, on 17 June, the deputies of the Third Estate proclaimed the establishment of the National Assembly, which on 9 July was renamed the Constituent Assembly. At that time, Louis XVI mobilized troops in an attempt to dissolve the parliament, provoking an armed uprising of the people of Paris, which led to the storming of the Bastille.

Revolutionary History

Capture the Bastille

When Louis XVI ascended the throne in 1774, the Estates-General, representing the three estates of France, had not been convened for 175 years. On 5 May 1789, Louis XVI convened a council of the Estates-General at Versailles due to financial problems, at which the king wished to discuss tax increases, restrictions on the press, and civil criminal law, and ordered that no other topics be discussed. The third estate delegate did not agree to the tax increase and declared it illegal. On 17 June 1789 the deputies of the Third Estate proclaimed the establishment of the National Assembly, and the King had no right to veto the decisions of the National Assembly. Louis XVI then closed the National Assembly, declared it illegal, null and void all its resolutions, and ordered the three estates of delegates to meet separately.

On July 9, 1789, the National Assembly announced that it would be renamed the Constituent Assembly, calling for a constitution to limit the power of the crown. Louis XVI, realizing that this was in jeopardy for his rule, mobilized an army in an attempt to dissolve the Parliament. On 12 July, the citizens of Paris staged a massive demonstration in support of the Constituent Assembly. The next day, the bells rang in the Parisian churches, and the citizens fought with the king's mercenaries from Germany and Switzerland, taking control of most of Paris that night. On 14 July, the crowd stormed the Bastille, a symbol of authoritarian rule, freeing seven prisoners for an initial victory. This day later became the French National Day.

In the eastern part of the downtown area of Paris, France, there is a Place de la Bastille. 200 years ago, the world-famous Bastille stood here. The Bastille was a very strong fortress. It was built by order of King Charles V of France in the style of the famous military castle of the 12th century. At that time, the purpose was to defend against the British attack, so it was built in front of the city. Later, due to the expansion of the urban area of Paris, the fortress of the Bastille became a building in the eastern part of the city, and lost its role as a defense against foreign enemies. By the end of the 18th century, it had become the commanding height of Paris and a prison for political prisoners.

The Bastille is 100 feet high, has a thick wall, and has 8 towers. Fifteen cannons were mounted on it, and next to the cannons were hundreds of barrels of gunpowder and countless shells. It was condescending, looking down on the whole of Paris, like a giant beast lying on the ground. Most of the famous people who dared to oppose the absolute monarchy were imprisoned here (Voltaire was thrown into the Bastille twice). The Bastille became a symbol of the French autocracy.

In 1789, the Revolution broke out in France. The alarm bells rang in Paris, and workers, craftsmen, and the urban poor poured into the streets, seized weapons, and began an armed uprising. The French people have long hated kings, clergy and nobility. The clergy were the first class in French society at that time, and the nobility was the second. Various other people fall under the third estate. The first and second classes have only about 200,000 people, accounting for only 2-3% of the country's total population. However, they are rich and powerful, riding on the heads of the people to make a fortune. King Louis XVI of France was their chief. He was in cahoots with the monks and nobles, making the people's lives miserable.

In the late 18th century, the king and his ministers, seeing that the treasury was empty, did everything they could to loot money so that they could continue to eat, drink, and be merry. For this, he also convened in 1789 the "Estates-General", which had been suspended for 175 years, to raise funds. However, the representatives of the Third Estate saw through the king's scheme, and they took advantage of the meeting to make two demands: first, to limit the king's power and make the Estates-General the supreme legislative body of the state; Second, the method of allocating voting rights according to the hierarchy was changed, requiring the three levels to meet together and vote according to the number of people present. When King Louis XVI heard these demands, he was furious, believing that the Third Estate was a great rebellion. He secretly transferred troops loyal to the dynasty back to Paris to arrest representatives of the Third Estate. When the news broke, the people of Paris were furious and furious. Thus, a great revolution that had been brewing for a long time broke out.

On the day of July 13, 1789, people armed with weapons took over one position after another, and the city of Paris was littered with barricades of insurgents. By the morning of the 14th, the people had seized all of Paris. In the end, only the Bastille remained in the hands of the king's army.

"To the Bastille!" Shouts rang out from the ranks of the uprising. The insurgents flocked from all sides to the last bastion of autocracy in Paris.

The soldiers guarding the Bastille opened fire on the insurgents from the roofs and windows, and the cannons from the towers began to bombard.

The rebels who rushed to the front were overwhelmed by the stormy fire and could not approach the Bastille, so they returned fire from the surrounding barricades. They had no cannons, only some old cannons found from all over the place, and even rusty ancient cannons cast hundreds of years ago to join the fight. They didn't have gunners, only a few people who volunteered to come out and open fire, and a wine seller named Xiao Lai actually became a gunner. However, these ancient and old cannons finally roared in the hands of the insurgents who had been aroused by the fighting. Rows of shells slammed into the prison walls, filling the air with smoke and brick debris. However, because the wall was too thick, it could not be breached, and the insurgents had already suffered casualties.

One hour passed, the fighting did not progress, and the siege of the Bastille grew. The people were in a hurry, and some of them simply took two torches and bravely rushed to the arch and set fire to the guards room and the military canteen of the fortress, but there was still nothing they could do about the fortress and the tower. A wig-maker tried to set fire to the fortress's saltpeter vault with torches, but was unsuccessful. Someone shouted; Mix phosphorus and pine resin together and burn the enemy's artillery!" But the gun emplacements were too high to reach at all.

At this time, another loud voice came from behind the position: "We now need real artillery and real gunners!" So everyone calmed down, and they all waited, watching. More than two hours later, a powerful cannon was pulled in, and experienced gunners were found. After a while, heavy artillery fire was fired at the Bastille. A part of the defenders finally raised the white flag and surrendered. The drawbridge was slowly lowered, and the rebels rushed in, freeing the seven prisoners who had been held in the air in a hail of bullets from another part of the defenders who had refused to surrender.

The storming of the Bastille became the signal of a national revolution. Cities followed the example of the people of Paris, armed themselves to seize municipal administration and established the National Guard. In the countryside, everywhere peasants attacked the lord's estates and burned the title deeds. Soon, the Constituent Assembly, organized by the people, took power. In that year, the Constituent Assembly promulgated the August Decree "abolishing all old obligations", followed by the famous Declaration of the Rights of Man, which solemnly proclaimed to the world the principle of "personal liberty and equal rights".

Constitutional monarchy

The deputies seized power in Paris during the uprising and established the National Guard. The king had to give in and recognize the legitimacy of the Constituent Assembly. At this time, the Constituent Assembly became the de facto supreme organ of state power.

In Parliament, the constitutional monarchists play a major role. The Constituent Assembly passed a decree announcing the abolition of the absolute monarchy, the abolition of the privileges of the church and the nobility, and the abolition of tribute by way of ransom.

The Declaration of the Rights of Man was adopted on 26 August 1789, declaring that "all men are born and always are free and equal". After the failure of the king's attempt to overthrow the Constituent Assembly with mercenaries in October, the royal family was forced to move from Versailles to Paris, and the Constituent Assembly moved with it. A number of revolutionary groups emerged in Paris, among which the Jacobin Club and the Cordelier Club played a huge role in the revolution.

In June 1790, the Constituent Assembly abolished the titles of prince, hereditary nobility and knighthood, and redivided the administrative districts. The Dali Yuan, the Supreme Court, and the jury system were established. The Constituent Assembly also confiscated church property and declared the Church of France separate from the papal rule and returned to the administration of the state, achieving the separation of church and state.

On June 20, 1791, Louis XVI failed to flee in disguise, and some radical leaders and the people demanded the abolition of the royal government and the establishment of a republic, but the constitutional monarchists advocated maintaining the status quo and retaining the monarchy. On 16 July, the constitutional monarchists split from the Jacobins and formed the Fiyan Club.

In September, the Constituent Assembly adopted a constitution with "all power elected by the whole people" and the separation of powers, stipulating that the executive power belongs to the king, the legislative power belongs to the legislative assembly, and the judicial power belongs to the courts at all levels.

The Constituent Assembly was dissolved on 30 September 1791.

The Legislative Assembly was convened on 1 October 1791. France becomes a constitutional monarchy.

The French Revolution caused unrest in the surrounding countries, and Prussia and Austria formed an alliance to attack France. Marie Antonette, the queen of Louis XVI and sister of the Emperor of Austria, leaked military secrets to the Allied forces, resulting in the defeat of the French army, and the Allied forces invaded France.

On July 11, 1792, the Legislative Assembly declared the Fatherland in danger. The people of Paris, mainly sans-culottes (commoners), once again set off the climax of the republican movement. The Jacobin leaders Robespierre, Marat, and Danton led the anti-monarchy movement, and on August 10 stormed the Tuileries Palace, the king's residence, detained the king and queen, overthrew the Bourbons, and overthrew the constitutionalists.

The Girondists ruled

After the popular uprising in Paris on 10 August, the Girondists took power. On 20 September, the French army defeated the foreign intervention forces at the Battle of Valmy. The National Convention, elected by universal suffrage, was inaugurated on 21 September, and the First French Republic was established on 22 September. During the Girondists' reign, decrees were issued to force the nobles to return illegally occupied public land, to lease or sell confiscated church land to peasants in small plots, and to crack down on clergy and fugitive nobles who refused to take an oath to the Constitution.

On January 21, 1793, the National Convention executed Louis XVI on charges of treason.

When the Girondists came to power, they devoted their main forces against the Jacobins and the Parisian sans-culottes. From the autumn of 1792, dissatisfied with their moderate policies, demanded a crackdown on speculative merchants and a restriction on prices. The civilian revolutionaries, represented by the Radicals, demanded severe punishment of speculators and a comprehensive cap on the prices of daily necessities. The Girondists, on the other hand, issued decrees to suppress the movement.

At the same time, the French army had already reached abroad after October 1792. The European countries were so frightened that in February 1793, Prussia, Austria, Spain, the Netherlands, Sardinia, Hanover, and Great Britain formed an anti-French alliance to intervene in France with arms. However, the Girondists were unable to resist foreign troops, and the people of Paris staged a third uprising from May 31 to June 2, overthrowing the Girondists and establishing the Jacobin dictatorship.

Dictatorship of the Jacobins

The dictatorship of the Jacobins put down the armed rebellions instigated by the overthrown Girondists in many areas.

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