During the Napoleonic era, the role of artillery in warfare became more and more important. To quote the French Officers' Handbook at the time: "Artillery is an indispensable part of a 'complete' force, and a battle without artillery is impractical." Artillery not only strengthens an army's firepower, but its longer range than a smoothbore gun enriches the army's means of firepower. Unlike infantry and cavalry, artillery is a highly technical branch of the army. The effectiveness of artillery fire on the battlefield largely depends on the technique of setting up and aiming the gun position, as well as experience.

(1) Artillery equipment and establishment

At that time, artillery was divided into field artillery and siege artillery. The caliber of siege artillery is generally much larger than that of field artillery. Field artillery is further divided into cannons and howitzers. The French and Spanish cannon systems included: 4-pounder guns (later replaced by 6-pounderers); 8-pounder guns and 12-pounder guns. The cannons of Britain, Prussia, Russia and Austria include: 3-pounder guns; 6-pounder and 12-pounder guns. It should be noted that the French pound was about 10% heavier than the British pound, so the French 12-pounder gun was the heaviest field cannon on the battlefield at that time. Napoleon fell in love with the 12-pounder cannon for ten minutes, and affectionately called her "pretty girls" (bellesfilles in French; The English translation is beautifuldaughter, which should mean 'beautiful daughter' in English), which is why there are more 12-pounder guns in the French army.

According to estimates, there was little difference in the muzzle velocity of the projectiles fired by different artillery guns at that time, but because the large-caliber artillery projectiles were heavier and had a larger kinetic energy, the firing range was naturally farther. The effective firing range of the French 12-pounder and 8-pounder guns and the 12-pounder guns on the anti-French side was about 800~900 meters, and the maximum firing range was about 2000 meters. The effective range of the 6-pounder guns and the 3-pounder and 6-pounder guns of the alliance is 500~600 meters, and the maximum firing range is about 1500 meters. It can be seen that the artillery on the part of the coalition is somewhat weaker in terms of range and firepower. To counter the French artillery, the British introduced 9-pounder guns at the end of the Napoleonic Wars. This gun was similar to the French 8-pounder gun in range and firepower.

At that time, howitzers had a shorter barrel and a lower muzzle velocity than a cannon. The elevation angle is high, and the trajectory is clearly parabolic. The effective firing range is shorter than that of the cannon, about 400~500 meters. French and British howitzers are classified by caliber, with France armed with 6-inch and 8-inch howitzers, and the British armed with 4.4-inch, 5.5-inch and 8-inch howitzers. Other European countries are classified according to the weight of the projectile, and there are many types, so I will not describe them one by one.

Whether it was a cannon or a howitzer, the gun body was mounted on a two-wheeled gun mount. Each cannon also has a limber for the cartridge box, which is also two-wheeled. When transporting, the gun carriage and the front carriage were connected together to form a four-wheeled carriage, which was convenient for towing. Different sizes of artillery required different numbers of mules and horses to be towed. The 12-pounder gun of the French army, the gun body, gun carriage and the front car weigh about 2 tons, and 8~12 horses are required to drag it according to the terrain. The British 9-pounder gun and the French 8-pounder gun cost 6~8 horses. Lighter 6-pounder guns and howitzers also cost 4~6 horses. Mounted artillery emphasizes speed, so it is common to take the maximum of the number of horses above.

The cavalry section mentions that cavalry destroys reloaders after capturing enemy artillery positions. The first is a sponge, which is wrapped in wool at the top and dipped in water to extinguish the remaining sparks in the barrel. The second is the Dry Cannon Brush (MOP, Cat Pounce!!) ), wash and dry the water left by the previous steps; The third vortex hook was used to remove any pieces of paper or fibers that might remain in the chamber of the gun (since the charge of artillery at that time was wrapped in paper or flannel); the fourth is the rammer; The fifth is a portfire, one end of which is a roll of paper containing a slow-burning substance (a mixture of gunpowder, saltpeter, sulfur and flax oil).

Formation of artillery

In Napoleonic times, the basic unit of artillery was the battery battery. However, the use of these artillery batteries was concentrated in the hands of the corps and even the supreme commander. During the battle, the higher-level command department will basically assign an artillery company to each division to provide fire support. Although the French army organized six artillery companies into artillery regiments, each company of the artillery regiment had to be assigned to a division-level unit. This means of centralized management of the use of artillery batteries was accepted by the armies of the countries of the time. Of course, Napoleon, Wellington and Archduke Charles all tried to distribute some light artillery directly to regimental units, or even below regimental level. However, because this method had too much freedom, it was not conducive to concentrating artillery firepower, and it was finally changed back to the original situation.

Field artillery is further divided into foot artillery and mounted artillery. There was not much to say about foot artillery, the gunners were basically marching on foot, and senior artillery officers or older junior officers were allowed to ride horses. Of course, there are also records of gunners dragging horses on artillery carts.

Kaiser Wilhelm the Great of Prussia founded the first mounted artillery, which he also gave the name "flyingartillery". The French officers at the time were shocked to see the performance of this artillery on the battlefield, but the French still did not form a mounted artillery corps. It was not until 1792, after the French Revolution, that two mounted artillery batteries appeared in the French army. But after that, especially after Napoleon's reign, the French cavalry artillery developed rapidly. By 1807, the French army already had 6 regiments (36 companies) of mounted artillery. In 1810 the 7th Dutch Mounted Artillery Regiment was established. It can be said that the mounted artillery of the French army, both in absolute number and in terms of equipment level, was the highest in Europe at that time. The British also had a high rate of mounted artillery, with half of the 26 artillery companies participating in the Battle of Waterloo being mounted artillery. According to one of the sources at hand, only 13 of the 42 artillery batteries that Austria had entered the battlefield in 1813 were mounted artillerymen. Of the 17 artillery batteries of the Prussian army at Waterloo, 6 mounted artillery. The Russian army's artillery establishment is relatively chaotic, and it is difficult to count accurate data, but it is certain that the ratio is similar to that of the Prussian army.

There is little difference in the number of artillery batteries in various countries. The French infantry artillery consisted of 6 cannons and 2 howitzers; Mounted artillery was 4 cannons and 2 howitzers. The British army, regardless of whether they were riding or on foot, some were 5/1 (5 cannons and 1 howitzer, the same below) and some were 4/2. The Prussian army was all 6/2. The Austrian 12-pounder battery was 8/2, the mounted battery was 6/2, and the light artillery company was 4/2. The situation of the Russian army is again unknown. Because the 12-pounder guns were heavier, mounted artillery was rarely armed with 12-pounder guns, but a large number of 6-pounder guns.

The total number of officers and men of artillery batteries in various countries ranges from 150 to 200 people. Each gun had seven gunners (eight for the French 12-pounder guns) and a number of infantrymen to assist in movement, adjust the angle of the guns, and provide the necessary resistance to the artillery company in the event of an attack. Of the 7 gunners, the commander of the guns is usually a sergeant, an igniter, a loader, one or two are responsible for carrying the ammunition, one is responsible for wetting the chamber, and the last one does not know how to translate (ventsman), let's call it the ignition port operator, and after a while everyone will understand why it is translated this way. If only one person is carrying the ammunition, the remaining one is on standby at the back of the horse and the "cart in front", waiting for orders. There will be a lieutenant for every two guns, and the entire artillery company will be under the responsibility of the captain company commander.

(2) Types of ammunition and firepower tactics

The main shells used in field artillery during the Napoleonic era were: solidroundshot, commonshell, canister and sphericalcase.

Solid artillery shells were the most common type of ammunition at that time, accounting for about 70%~80% of the total ammunition ration and use of the armies of various countries. The structure of this shell is extremely simple, just a solid iron ball. Compared with other ammunition, the biggest advantage of solid shells is that the processing technology is simple, the material cost is not high, and it is easy to produce and quickly replenish. And solid shells have good penetration.

On the battlefield, solid shells are suitable for firing at all kinds of targets, not only killing and wounding men and horses, but also destroying field fortifications such as bastions. Because of its low trajectory and linear damage, dense infantry columns and infantry phalanxes are often more valuable targets for firing. Thin infantry formations and cavalry were not suitable for the use of such shells. It is recorded that solid shells could easily penetrate a column of 20 platoons of infantry. Moreover, ricochets on harder ground still have a certain lethality. However, the disadvantages of solid shells were also obvious: the low trajectory made it difficult to effectively hit enemy units located on the anti-slope of the hillside.

The grenade is also spherical in appearance, hollow inside, and has a charge, which uses fragments after explosion to kill and injure the opponent. The internal charge is ignited by a fuse inserted in the opening of the projectile. The fuse is usually a hollow reed tube (reed) with a built-in twist, and the corresponding length of the fuse is cut for use according to the distance to be shot at before loading.

Since the grenade does not rely on the kinetic energy of the projectile itself, but on the kinetic energy of the fragments to destroy enemy units, it can take a more curved trajectory and be fired from the howitzer. This makes up for the lack of solid shells very well. In addition to being used against troops behind hillsides, grenades are quite effective against enemy units of all formations in open fields. The ideal point of impact is in front of the target team, or preferably in the sky above the enemy queue.

The name of the shotgun (Canister) originally means cylinder, and the body of the bullet has a cylindrical appearance. The shell is a thin sheet of iron, with a wooden sabot at the bottom, and a small iron projectile inside the shell (note: there is no gunpowder in the shell). In addition to distinguishing bullets according to the usual gun model, shotguns are also divided into heavy shotguns and light shotguns according to the size of the projectile inside. The projectile used in a light shotgun is about 1.5 ounces (1 ounce = 28.25 grams) and the heavy one is about 4 ounces. Shotguns are more akin to guns than guns in principle, and the breech propels the body forward after firing. The moment the projectile body leaves the gun chamber, the pressure difference between the inside and outside of the gun is huge, and the shell of the projectile body cannot bear it, and then it bursts, and the projectile inside is bound to come out, forming a cake-shaped barrage in space. The barrage will gradually disperse, cutting through a cone-shaped space fixed by the muzzle of the gun, and hitting the target.

The principle of the shotgun made it more suitable for direct cannon fire (of course, howitzers of the time also had this type). Moreover, the effective range is much closer. The British military ruled that shotguns could not be used above 350 yards. The French army's light shotguns were also basically controlled to be used within 400. Of course, the heavy shotgun used by the French 12-pounder gun can still effectively kill and injure enemy units at a distance of 600~800 meters. However, at this distance, the barrage has long been completely dispersed, and the person who fired the cannon may not know who it will hit. The "face" lethality and penetration of shotguns is not strong, and it is suitable for deploying horizontal formations, so mounted artillery that mobile to support the attack will be equipped with more shotguns. Similarly, cavalry mounted on tall horses with two columns attacking in a horizontal column (with a larger frontal area) would be another excellent target for shotguns.

One thing to emphasize here is that shotgun is not exactly the same as Grapeshot! The principle of grapeshot is similar to that of shotguns, but it was a type of bullet for the Navy at the time, not for the Army.

The shrapnel had a grenade-like structure and a shotgun principle, and was only used by the British army at that time. The disadvantage of the above shotgun is that the small projectile spreads too quickly and the effective range is short. Shrapnel shells contain small projectiles in a body that resembles a grenade and charge at the same time. But the amount of charge was just enough to destroy the outer shell. After launching, the projectile body flies a certain distance towards the enemy, and the charge explosion releases a small projectile, which continues to fly in the direction of the original projectile, thereby delaying the time of diffusion and can hit the target more intensively. Shrapnel is suitable for both cannon and howitzer, but it is more effective on cannons.

When talking about the composition of artillery batteries earlier, you should note that all artillery batteries have more cannons than howitzers. If you look at the principles and uses of various shells, you will understand: at that time, the use rate of cannons was much higher than that of howitzers, so it was normal for a large number of cannons to be large.

When defending, artillery is used to bombard enemy attacking columns or cavalry, kill and wound enemy personnel, strike at enemy will, and weaken the offensive. When attacking, artillery can shake the enemy front and create fighters for a breakthrough for the attacking forces. Artillery rarely bombarded the opposing artillery directly, both offensive and defensive, because according to the artillery accuracy of the time, the position of an artillery battery was too small to be a worthy target.

It takes about 1~2 minutes for artillery and personnel to enter the firing position; It takes about 2~3 minutes to hang up the car in front and prepare to transfer the position, and the heavier artillery action is correspondingly slower. Before the artillery entered the position, part of it was already in a state of reloading, so the first round of firing lasted a short time. The rate of fire after that is affected by various factors, such as bullet change, casualties, etc. Normally, the rate of fire of 2~3 rounds per minute should be relatively high. If it is not wet, it is possible to reach 4 rounds per minute, which is a bit risky for the loader.

Rockets are another "secret weapon" of the British army on the battlefield. It is said that it is a "secret", in fact, the Navy has been using rockets for a long time. At that time, the launch principle of the rocket was similar to that of modern rockets, and the thrust generated by the combustion of the charge at the rear propelled the missile body forward. The warheads of rockets ranged from 5 to 32 pounds, but the field warheads adopted by the British Army were basically 6 pounds and 9 pounds. The warhead types include the previously mentioned solid and grenades, in addition to which the rocket can carry RS shells, signal flares and flares. The advantage is that there is no need to use artillery to fire, the rate of fire will be much faster than the artillery, and the system. The manufacturing process is no more complicated than artillery shells. The disadvantage is that the accuracy is too poor. In 1806, in Boulogne, the British Army used a navy-type rocket for the first time. As a result, all the rockets that were originally aimed at the ships in the harbor hit the dock. Because of this shortcoming, Wellington refused to use rockets at one time. However, rockets can have a certain intimidating effect on enemy recruits and horses, so the Battle of Waterloo has rockets in battle. Wellington once commented on the effect of rockets in this battle: "Compared with the enemy's artillery fire, our rockets are a greater threat to me!" ”（