Many people like blue and white porcelain as much as they like Chinese landscape paintings. The light girly makeup with a light blue is its unique elegance. Crystal blue, whether it is the invasion of several waves of smoke and rain, the eternal transformation, or the beauty is so elegant, so moving.

From the point of view of content, blue and white porcelain paintings enrich and enhance the breadth of Chinese ink painting to reflect life, and are filled with a strong atmosphere of life.

The heritage of China's ceramic culture is very profound, the porcelain-making process is unique, and the types of porcelain are even more varied. The characteristics of the same kind of porcelain are different in different dynasties. Among the mainstream varieties in China's porcelain industry is blue and white porcelain, which belongs to the treasures of China's porcelain-making process.

Blue and white porcelain is made of cobalt oxide as raw material, by drawing some ornaments on the carcass of porcelain, covering with a layer of transparent glaze, and firing at one time by a high-temperature reducing flame. The fired blue and white porcelain is blue, bright in color, and has strong tinting power.

Blue and white porcelain has a long history in China, and the earliest complete specimens found were in the Tang Dynasty. In the Yuan Dynasty, blue and white porcelain can be said to have reached a peak in the history of China's ceramic development, and the production process gradually matured. In the Yongle and Xuande eras of the early Ming Dynasty and the "first three generations" of the Qing Dynasty, blue and white porcelain became the mainstream.

Although they are all blue and white porcelain, the dynasties are different, and the porcelain has different shapes, glazes, green materials, ornamentation, styles, and colors.

Yuan blue and white: The blue and white porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty increased the content of alumina in the porcelain carcass due to the use of the formula of "porcelain stone + kaolin" for the carcass. Alumina is resistant to high temperatures, and the temperature at which the porcelain is fired becomes higher, and the deformation rate of the porcelain gradually decreases during the firing process. Therefore, most of the utensils have a thick carcass and a thick and full shape.

Ming blue and white: The blue and white porcelain type of the Ming Dynasty is the same as the human jar and large plate in the Hongwu period of the Ming Dynasty, which is stable and dignified, solid and simple. Even if it is like a small folding plate, it is very large.

Qing blue and white: During the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, the blue and white porcelain was ancient and generous, dignified and simple, thick and beautiful. In the early years, the carcass was relatively thick and heavy, and gradually thinned in the middle and later stages. In particular, the texture of the carcass is delicate and dense.

Blue and white porcelain belongs to the treasures of China's porcelain, especially the blue and white of the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties. It will be fried to a sky-high price, but it also depends on which kiln it is fired from. However, it is also necessary to have some methods to identify blue and white porcelain.

Rinse the utensils with water. If potassium permanganate is used too much, the water will be purple, and sometimes if you touch it with your finger dipped in water, your finger will also be dyed purple brown. Follow the sunlight and magnify the surface glaze layer of the porcelain with high magnification. If the surface is worn criss-crossed, the thickness is different, it belongs to the old porcelain, genuine. This phenomenon is not present in new porcelain.

Jingdezhen is the production area of Yuan blue flowers, but the aesthetic spirit embodied in Yuan blue flowers originates from the grassland. Jingdezhen shaped the material form of Yuan Qinghua, and the grassland endowed Yuan Qinghua with its inner temperament and spirit. This temperament is integrated into the ceramic culture of Jingdezhen, becoming the most influential part of it, and integrating into the Chinese culture through ceramics, becoming one of the symbols of Chinese culture.

Yuan blue and white opened the era of high-temperature underglaze painted porcelain and opened the glorious era of Chinese ceramics. "Look at the color from a distance and see the flower from close", the role of color in applied art is very crucial. The praise of blue and white porcelain is, first of all, the beauty of color. But what is interesting is that white and blue are not the most attractive colors in Han culture, and they were even hated colors.

Look at the white first. Although white also symbolizes purity and cleanliness, the folk white of the Central Plains is associated with funerals, "plain cars and white horses", and white is the color of filial piety. White also has the meaning of inferiority, and the commoners are also called "white clothes", and the scholars who have not entered the official career are "white ding" and "white clothes cold soldiers". Look at cyan again. "Qing" symbolizes spring and vitality in Han culture, and is an auspicious color; However, "green" as a clothing color also has the meaning of poverty and humility, such as "green shirt", "green clothes", "green robes" and so on.

Therefore, the aesthetic style of blue and white decoration is not the result of the natural growth of Han culture, but the crystallization of cultural integration. There is no doubt that the rise of blue and white porcelain is closely related to the grassland culture.

The first is that white is valued. The rise of white porcelain in the Tang Dynasty in the north where the ceramic foundation is relatively weak, which is intriguing. We know that most of the rulers of the northern regimes at that time were northern peoples (or had deep blood and political ties with the northern peoples), and in the northern steppe culture, white was a symbol of goodness. The development of white porcelain is of great significance, providing the most ideal painting base for blue and white porcelain. This was followed by the appearance of blue and white porcelain.

Regarding the influence of West Asia on Yuan Qinghua, the academic community has paid great attention to it. The first cobalt oxide material used for blue and white porcelain decoration was produced in West Asia. During the Tang Dynasty, this pigment entered China from West Asia and appeared alongside other colors in Tang Sancai. In the Tang Dynasty, there were occasional blue and white ceramics, but they did not become mainstream.

The living environment of the steppe peoples for generations has influenced their aesthetic concepts. They advocate nature, love blue sky and white clouds, and blue and white are of great significance to the grassland people. In the legend of the "blue wolf and white deer", white and blue are the color marks of the Mongolian ancestors.

The Mongolian steppe people's admiration for blue and white is a necessary condition for the rise of Yuan blue and white. Because the good of one nation must be accepted by other peoples, political influence comes first. In fact, it was in the context of opening up the Eastern and Western cultures that the multi-ethnic integration and multi-religious culture of the Yuan Dynasty coexisted, influenced each other, and exchanged and blended with each other, so that blue and white porcelain was highly valued, and eventually became one of the most important industrial products in the world at that time.

Regarding the specific relationship between Mongolian culture and Yuan Qinghua, Mr. Shang Gang has discussed many in the "History of Arts and Crafts of the Five Dynasties of the Sui and Tang Dynasties" and "History of Arts and Crafts of the Yuan Dynasty", and there are also many cultural relics to support these views.

It is worth noting that the blue and white porcelain strongly promoted by the Mengyuan regime was not lost due to the change of dynasty. After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, blue and white porcelain not only did not disappear, but became more and more colorful.

The blue and white porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty was mainly used by the rulers of the northern steppe peoples and the needs of overseas trade, and since the Ming Dynasty, the love for the beauty of blue and white has become a common pursuit. After the Ming Dynasty, Jingdezhen kilns produced a large number of daily blue and white porcelain, and the followers of these blue and white porcelain were the people of the Central Plains.

The love of the grassland people for the blue sky and white clouds, with the help of power, has gradually changed the Han people's likes and dislikes of colors, and even become an aesthetic gene deeply rooted in the Han culture that affects later generations.

Blue and white porcelain integrates the aesthetic admiration from the grassland into the Chinese aesthetic system, enriching the connotation of Chinese aesthetics and becoming a treasure of Chinese culture. In the Gansu region where Jingdezhen is located and even the entire Jiangnan, the blue cloth with a similar color style to the blue and white is the most popular clothing cloth among the people. This is a very intriguing cultural phenomenon.

The cultural logic is that people have an instinctive perception of the beauty of color. Blue and white are nature's most generous gifts of beauty, and should be loved; However, due to the influence of social aesthetic habits, people often lose their natural sense of the beauty of color, and blue and white porcelain broke social customs with the help of the power of the grassland regime, regained people's sense of the beauty of this color, and rediscovered the beauty of the contrast between blue and white.

In short, China is a unified multi-ethnic country, where all ethnic groups tolerate each other, penetrate each other, and prosper together, forming a diverse and splendid culture. As a widely circulated commodity, a bridge and link between various ethnic groups, blue and white porcelain has played an important role in the formation of multiculturalism. It is not only the crystallization of cultural exchanges and mutual learning, but also fully embodies the power of cultural exchanges and mutual learning.

Blue and white porcelain, also known as blue and white porcelain on white ground, is often referred to as blue and white, and is a treasure of Chinese ceramic firing technology. It is one of the mainstream varieties of Chinese porcelain, which belongs to underglaze colored porcelain. Blue and white porcelain is made of cobalt ore containing cobalt oxide as raw material, depicting ornamentation on the ceramic body, and then covering with a layer of transparent glaze, which is fired at one time by a high-temperature reduction flame. The cobalt material is blue after firing, and has the characteristics of strong tinting strength, bright color, high firing rate and stable color.

The original blue and white porcelain has been seen in the Tang and Song dynasties, and the mature blue and white porcelain appeared in the Hutian kiln in Jingdezhen in the Yuan Dynasty. In the Ming Dynasty, blue and white became the mainstream of porcelain. It reached its peak during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it also created and burned blue and white five-colored, peacock green glazed blue and white, bean green glazed blue and white, blue and white red color, yellow ground blue and white, brother glaze blue and white and other derivative varieties.

The blue and white porcelain of the Tang Dynasty was in the promiscuous period of blue and white porcelain. The specimens that people can see include more than 20 pieces of blue and white porcelain fragments unearthed in Yangzhou in the 70s and 80s of the 20th century; a blue-and-white striped complex from the collection of the Fung Ping Shan Museum in Hong Kong; a floral bowl from the collection of the Museum of Boston, USA; a fish algae jar from the collection of the Copenhagen Museum in Denmark; A stippled plum pattern cover from the collection of the Nanjing Museum.

Through the study of the tire, glaze and color of the porcelain pieces unearthed in Yangzhou, and the analysis of the material and technical conditions of the Gongxian kiln in the Tang Dynasty, it is preliminarily concluded that the origin of Tang Qinghua is the Gongxian kiln in Henan. In recent years, a small number of blue and white porcelain specimens have been unearthed at the kiln site in Gongxian County, which further confirms that the origin of Tang blue and white porcelain is in Gongxian kiln, Henan.

Judging from the blue and white porcelain pieces unearthed in Yangzhou, the green material has a strong color and crystalline spots, which is a low-manganese, low-iron, copper-containing cobalt material, and should be a cobalt material imported from Central and Western Asia. The tire is coarse and loose, beige gray, and the sintering degree is poor. The bottom glaze is yellowish in white, and the enamel is coarse.

Apply makeup soil between the glazes. The type of utensils is mainly small pieces, including doubles, bowls, cans, lids, etc. Except for the fish algae pattern jar in the collection of the Copenhagen Museum in Denmark, the rest are floral and grass patterns. Among them, the flower and grass patterns are divided into two categories, one is a typical traditional Chinese flower and plant, with small flowers such as caryophyllus and plum blossom being common; The other type is to sandwich loose leaf patterns in geometric figures such as diamonds, which is a typical arabesque pattern. From this point of view, combined with the location where Tang blue and white porcelain was unearthed more (Yangzhou was an important port in the Tang Dynasty), it can be proved that Tang blue and white porcelain was mainly for export.

After Tang Qinghua went through the initial period, it did not develop rapidly, but went into decline. So far, people can only see more than ten pieces of porcelain pieces unearthed from the two tower base sites.

The first is excavated in 1957 in Longquan County, Zhejiang Province, Jinsha Taji, a total of 13 pieces of blue and white bowl fragments were unearthed. The tower bricks of the tower have the absolute date of the Northern Song Dynasty "Taiping Xingguo two years" (977); The other is in 1970 in Shaoxing City, Zhejiang Province, in the base of the Huancui Pagoda, unearthed a fragment of the belly of a blue and white bowl. The tower tablet unearthed at the base of the tower proves that this tower was built in the first year of Xianchun in the Southern Song Dynasty (1265).

These more than ten pieces of Song blue and white porcelain are all fragments of bowls. Some of the fetal quality is coarse, and some are thinner. The pattern is decorated with chrysanthemum pattern, circle pattern, string pattern, line pattern, etc. the blue and white hair color in the front part is darker and blacker; The latter one is lighter. If the hair color is darker, it should be because the transparent glaze of the outer cover is too thin. Zhejiang Province itself is rich in cobalt earth, and these blue and white porcelains should be made of local cobalt materials. They have no direct continuity with Tang Qinghua.

Mature blue and white porcelain appeared in Jingdezhen in the Yuan Dynasty. Due to the use of the binary formula of "porcelain stone + kaolin", the content of Al2O3 in the tire is increased, the firing temperature is increased, and the deformation rate in the roasting process is reduced. The carcass of most utensils is also thick, and the shape is thick and full.

The tire color is slightly gray and yellow, and the tire is loose. The bottom glaze is divided into two types: blue and egg white, and the milky feeling is strong. The green materials used include domestic materials and imported materials: the domestic materials are high manganese and low iron green materials, which are blue and grayish black; The imported material is a low-manganese high-iron iron type green material, which is verdant and bright in color, with rust marks.

In some utensils, there are also cases where domestic materials and imported materials are used together. The main types of utensils are daily utensils, offering vessels, tomb vessels and other categories, especially the bamboo goblet, with a seat, and the tomb ware are the most characteristic of the times. In addition to the jade pot spring bottom foot glaze, the bottom of other utensils is more sandy and the bottom is unglazed, see fire.

The biggest feature of the ornamentation of Yuan blue and white is that the composition is plump, and the layers are not chaotic. The brushwork is more common with a stroke of dots, smooth and powerful; The sketch rendering is thick and composed. The motifs include people, animals, plants, poems, etc. The characters include Gao Shitu (Four Loves), historical figures, etc.; Animals include dragons and phoenixes, unicorns, mandarin ducks, swimming fish, etc.; Common plants include peonies, lotus, orchids, pine, bamboo, plum, ganoderma lucidum, flowers and leaves, melons and fruits, etc.; Poetry is rare.

The petals of the painted peony are mostly white-edged; The dragon pattern is a small head, a thin neck, a long body, three or four claws, a ridge on the back, and the scales are mostly grid-shaped, vigorous and fierce. The auxiliary ornaments are mostly curly grass, lotus petals, ancient money, sea water, back lines, clouds, banana leaves, etc. The shape of the lotus petal pattern resembles a "brace brace", and the lotus petal is often painted with Taoist miscellaneous treasures; Ruyi cloud pattern is often painted with eight strange seas or broken branch lotus, entwined branch flowers, painted three-order clouds; The middle stem of the banana leaf is solid (filled with green material); The sea pattern is a combination of thick lines and thin lines.

The Ming and Qing dynasties were a period when blue and white porcelain reached its peak and then declined. The Yongle and Xuande periods of the Ming Dynasty were a peak in the development of blue and white porcelain, which was known for its exquisite production; During the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, the blue and white porcelain developed to the peak with "colorful blue and white"; After Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty, due to the development of pastel porcelain and gradually declined, although in the late Qing Dynasty (Guangxu) once prosperous, in the end of the Kangxi Dynasty could not continue the prosperity of the Kangxi Dynasty.

Generally speaking, the official kiln ware of this period was rigorous and exquisite; The folk kiln ware is casual, free and easy, and the picture is freehand. From the late Ming Dynasty onwards, blue and white painting gradually absorbed elements of Chinese painting techniques.

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty (Hongwu Dynasty 1368-1402), the blue and white ware includes large and small plates, bowls, plum bottles, jade pots, spring bottles, etc. The green materials used are mainly domestic materials, and a small amount of imported materials is not excluded. The blue and white hair color is pale blue, and some are grayish. Some of the former have halos.

The ornamental layout still has the legacy of multi-layer decoration in the Yuan Dynasty, and the subject matter has not changed much, but many details have changed: such as the middle stem of the banana leaf is left blank; The white edges of the petals are more obvious and clear than those of the Yuan Dynasty; The "missing" part of the peony leaf is deeper, which is not as fat as that of the Yuan Dynasty; The chrysanthemum is painted as a "flat chrysanthemum", and the core of the flower is expressed in a checkered pattern; The dragon pattern is still slender, but in addition to the three or four claws, five claws have appeared, and the claws are shaped like wind wheels, and the momentum is not as fierce and vigorous as the Yuan Dragon.

The Ruyi cloud head of the auxiliary ornament was changed from the third-order cloud of the Yuan Dynasty to the second-order cloud; The lotus petal pattern is painted with eight treasures of Buddhism (the Yuan Dynasty painted Taoist miscellaneous treasures). Bowls and small plates are mostly painted with cloud patterns, which are only painted on the upper part of the outer wall of the utensils. The bottom of the utensils is more flat-cut, and the sand bottom is glazeless and the kiln is red. There is no year, and there are very few utensils with money.

The blue and white porcelain of Yongle and Xuande () shows a high level of craftsmanship. The green materials used in this period are mainly Su mud and green, and there are many "rust marks". There are also some domestic green materials.

But even if it is a domestic material, the hair color is quite good. There are plates, bowls, pots, pots, cups, etc. In particular, there are some non-Han cultural types such as monk's hat pots, ribbon flat pots, and flower waters, reflecting the cultural exchanges and integration with foreign regions and foreign ethnic groups during this period.

Ornamentation is mostly seen in various entwined branches or broken branches of flowers and fruits, dragons and phoenixes, sea water, sea monsters, swimming fish, etc. The fetal quality is more delicate and dense than before. The enamel is moist, and cellulite is common. Compared with the utensils of the two dynasties, the shape of Yongle is lighter and thinner, beautiful, the blue and white hair color is more intense, the rust marks are heavier, the ornamentation is more sparse, the depiction is more delicate, the bottom glaze is whiter, and there are many utensils.

The body of Xuande ware is thicker and heavier, the decoration is tighter, the bottom glaze is slightly green, there are more models with paragraphs, there are four or six characters of the year, and there is a "Xuande cloth body" said. Generally speaking, Xuande blue and white has a large number, many varieties and wide influence, so there is a saying that "blue and white first recommend Xuande".

The three dynasties of Orthodoxy, Jingtai and Tianshun () led to economic recession due to political turmoil, natural and man-made disasters and other factors. Moreover, from the beginning of orthodoxy, it has repeatedly ordered the "prohibition of official porcelain", so the number of porcelain in this period is small, which is called the "blank period" in the history of ceramics. Generally speaking, the types of vessels in this period are mainly bottles, cans, bowls, cups, plates and so on. There is still a part of the green material used that is "Su Qing".

Some of the blue and white hair color is intense, similar to Xuande, and some are elegant, which is close to Chenghua. The glaze is mostly gray. The carcass is thicker and heavier. The bottom foot trimming is not delicate, and there is a sense of thickness; Mostly see shallow and wide flat sand bottom, some have sticky sand, and some see flint red. The mouth of the bottle and can in orthodoxy is straight-necked, which is consistent with the Xuande ware; When the weather is good, it is like a trapezoidal narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, which is similar to the time of Chenghua.

The body of the bottle and can is full of shoulders, round belly, downward, and slightly outward; The body of the plum bottle is more slender than that of Xuande. The ornamentation is mainly dotted with a stroke, including figures, flowers, dragons and phoenixes, peacocks, etc. The background of the characters is mostly painted with large cloud patterns. The edge of the bottle and can is decorated with sea water pattern or banana leaf pattern, and the banana leaf stalk is left blank, and the leaf surface is wider, like a small tree.

The orthodox is the word Fu; Jingtai began to move from the heart of the instrument to the bottom of the instrument, in addition to the word Fu, there are also "Taiping Year Made", "Taiping", "Big Next Year" and so on; Tianshun has chronological models, Sanskrit models, etc.

The three dynasties of Chenghua (), Hongzhi (), and Zhengde () were in the middle of the Ming Dynasty. Before the middle of Chenghua and Hongzhi, it was used as equal blue, and the hair color was light and elegant. In the late Hongzhi period and Zhengde, the color is gray-blue. However, there are also some artifacts in this period with strong color and rust spots.

Chenghua is more downplay blue and white. The ornamental layout is sparse in the early stage, dense in the later stage, and more paintings are painted Sanguo, Sanyou, Jiuqiu, Coats, baby play, dragon wearing flowers, etc. The flowers and leaves are like palms stretched; The leaves are toothy, and the flowers and leaves have no positive and negative yin and yang; The aquatic plants of fish algae float like kelp; The mountain stone is key-like and has no concave and convex feeling; The edge decoration is relatively simple, and the edge of the mouth and the ring foot of the bowl, plate, cup and so on are only decorated with string patterns; Dragons are mostly Kuilong, with long trunks like elephant trunks; The ornamentation of the cross-pestle, Arabic and other religious content is common.

The fetus is delicate and white, and the glaze is very fine and has a jade texture, but it is slightly blue. There are pots, plum bottles, washers, trays, plates, cups, bowls, etc., and the furnace is a three-breast-foot cylinder or drum-shaped furnace. In addition to the "day" word jar, there are also "Ming Chenghua year" six-character single and double-line paragraphs; The main items in the picture are Fang Sheng, silver ingots, etc.

The early and middle Hongji artifacts are roughly the same as Chenghua, and even more delicate and soft than Chenghua. In the later period, it is close to Zhengde. The flower and leaf patterns are fine and dense, the Sanskrit patterns are increased, the dragon patterns are slender and soft, and the characters are free and easy. The paragraph is known as six characters and four characters.

Zhengde still uses domestic materials, and the early stage uses equal green, gray and blue. In the late stage, it is used to return to green. Some fainted. The shape, fetal quality, and enamel of its utensils are close to those of Hongji, and the bubbles are dense. Deep-bellied bowls, with seats, etc. are popular. In the later stage, it is more common to see large tools. The common ornaments include phoenix flowers, fish algae, lion hydrangea, garden baby play, tree stone railings, lotus eight treasures, etc., and the paintings are thicker than those of Hongji. The bottom of the bowl is down, and the bottom of the bowl appears to be the bottom of the chicken. At the bottom of the vessel, there are many phenomena such as kiln red, sticky sand, and jumping knife marks. There are four-character and six-character regular script paragraphs for the year, and the word "made" is used individually.

In the late Ming Dynasty, Jiajing (), Longqing (), Wanli () three dynasties, Jiajing was the longest, so the color of the utensils of this dynasty was not the same, the early ones were similar to the Zhengde vessels, and the hair color was gray and blue. However, the unique feature of this period is the use of green materials. In addition to the traditional still popular, the decoration of Taoist colors has increased significantly, such as cloud cranes, eight immortals, eight trigrams, Taoist eight treasures, etc. The flower group is a unique ornament.

In addition, there are baby plays, Coats, fish algae diagrams, etc. The forehead of the doll head in the baby play picture is prominent. The tire and glaze are small and fine, and the large and coarse. There are many large instruments. Octagonal, square, hexagonal, upper and lower gourd bottles and other special-shaped devices are common. The pearl box is a unique type of this court. The word "system" and "manufacturing" are used, and the word "system" is the majority. The book on the bottom of the vessel "Jinlu Dajiao altar" is a sacrificial vessel. There are also famous halls such as Dongshutang and Dongluo Hall.

Due to the short time of the Longqing Dynasty, there were fewer utensils, and there were fewer large and annual utensils. The green material is used to return to green, the color is stable and pure, and the blue is purple (not as purple as Jiajing). The ornamentation is similar to that of the Jiajing Dynasty. Because it is mainly small, the tire and glaze are more delicate. More hexagonal, octagonal and other shapes. There are two kinds of official kiln ware: "made in the year of Longqing in the Ming Dynasty" and "made in the year of Longqing", and there is no "system" paragraph; There are four characters of "Longqing year" or "system" for folk kilns; The auspicious language has Wanfu Youtong, Fushou Kangning, etc., and the ode language has rich and beautiful instruments.

In the early Wanli period, Huiqing was used, and in the middle and late periods, Shiziqing and Zhejiang materials were used. How much to downplay the blue and white. In addition to the traditional ornamentation, the brocade open light ornament is also popular; The ornamentation layout is dense and the theme is unclear; In addition, it is also common for the word Fu Lu Shou to be decorated. Bottles are more commonly seen in hollowing, looping and other processes. In addition to the traditional type, a new wall bottle has appeared.

The fetal quality is coarse, and the glaze is white and blue. There are many styles of "Ming Wanli Year Manufacturing", and there are also "Ming Wanli Year System" and "Wanli Year Making"; There are many pseudo-deposits, including Xuande, Chenghua, and Jiajing. In general, the level of craftsmanship has regressed.

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, due to political turmoil, all industries withered, and the ceramic industry was also depressed and deserted. After the nineteenth year of the Apocalypse, the imperial court did not order the official kiln to be built, so there were very few Apocalypse Year instruments, mainly the "Great Tomorrow Apocalypse Year System", and there were also "Apocalypse Year System" models.

In the folk kiln, there is an increase in the number of various picture records, hall names, auspicious words, and ode words, such as Yutang Jiaqi and Wanfu are the same; There are many pseudo-trusts, including Yongle, Xuande, Chenghua, Tianshun, Zhengde, Jiajing and other dynasties, among which the only pseudo-trust Tianshun is the apocalypse. The ornamentation is still dominated by traditional ornamentation, but the ornamentation of Taoist content is less than that of Wanli time, and the painting is rude. The ornamentation in this period is more sparse and the breath of life is heavier. The carcass is thick and heavy, the tire is coarse and loose, the shape of the vessel is irregular, the bottom of the vessel is sticky sand, the bottom is collapsed, and the knife marks have become the characteristics of the times.

Chongzhen has no official money. There are not many types of utensils, and there are many bowl-type stoves, in addition to bowls, cups, bottles, flower goose, etc. Green materials include stone green, Zhejiang materials, etc. Those with coarse hair color are more faint, and those with fine hair are stable. In addition to traditional motifs, Coats figures are particularly common. Infant play pictures, children's heads and feet are small, and the proportions are not harmonious.

Landscape figure (Coats figure) Mid-Autumn grass, bracket clouds, small sun, etc. are typical features. The fetus is coarse. The glaze is white and blue, and some are gray.

The Shunzhi () Dynasty in the early Qing Dynasty was not long, but it was a critical period of inheriting the past and opening up the future, laying a solid foundation for the peak of the later Kangxi period. Shunzhi blue and white ware mainly has the following characteristics: there are fewer types, mainly furnaces, goblets, bottles, large and small plates, bowls, cans, etc.

In general, the carcass is rougher, and the carcass of large utensils such as furnaces, large plates, and goblets is thick and heavy, while the carcasses of small utensils such as small plates and bowls are lighter and thinner. However, there are also individual utensils with delicate and dense fetal qualities, which can be seen in the shape of glutinous rice. The bottom glaze is mostly white and flashing blue, and some are slightly gray, and the glaze layer is thin. The blue and white material should be used in combination with Zhejiang material and stone green, resulting in some verdant and some blue.

Among them, the blue and white hair color of the furnace is mostly verdant, and the hair color of other utensils is gray and blue. Ornaments are mostly seen in flowers and birds, landscapes, travertine, autumn grass, boats on the river, monsters, rui beasts, plantains, clouds, etc. The large plate likes to draw a blue and white coil at the edge of the mouth, and then draw the main decoration in the circle; The small plate is mostly painted with a sycamore leaf on one side of the plate, and the other side is written with similar verses such as "a sycamore leaf falls, and the world is autumn".

Bottles, goblets, cans and other large utensils also like to use blue and white threads as decorative separations. The drawing method is a combination of outline, flat painting, rendering, and line drawing. The painting brushstrokes are arbitrary, although they are neater than those of the late Ming Dynasty, but they still do not see the rigorous and meticulous style of Kangxi. The layout of the picture is relatively full, especially the large plates, cans, bottles, goose and other utensils.

Beginning to show changes in the color of the law and shades, but not yet mature. Bottles, goblets and other flat sand bottoms. There are many glaze shrinkage spots at the bottom of plates, bowls, cans, etc., and sand sticking to the bottom foot is more common. The bottom of the bowl has many knife marks. There are many folk kilns, few official kilns, and there are very few artifacts with old models.

The Kangxi Dynasty has a long time span, rich types of utensils, and a high level of craftsmanship. In this period, Zhejiang material and pearl material are used, and the blue and white hair color is gray in the early stage, and it is green and blue after the middle stage, bright and bright. In the early stage of painting, single-line flat painting was the mainstay, and the momentum was rough; After the middle period, he used a combination of sketching, rendering, and striking, and his paintings were fine, and he was highly regarded for his blue and white color scale (the so-called "blue and white color").

There are various ornamental themes, including landscape figures, dragons and phoenixes, flowers and birds, fish, insects and animals, poems, Bogu, etc., among which the most characteristic of the times is the ice plum, the cultivation and weaving map, the knife and horse people, the double peony and so on. The white edge of the pattern is more obvious than that of the other dynasties. The fetus is dense and fine white, and it is glutinous rice cake-like. The glaze is hard, tightly combined with the fetus, see orange peel or brown eyes, flash blue in the early white, bright white after the middle stage.

In addition to the daily utensils, ornamental porcelain has increased a lot, and the typical vessels include lid jars, phoenix tails, flower goose, elephant leg bottles, pen holders, etc. The bottom foot of the utensils also has strong characteristics of the times: the carved ware has more than two layers of bottoms; The pen holder has a jade bottom; In the early stage, the foot is mostly a sharp "crucian carp back" bottom with oblique cutting on both sides, and after the middle stage, it is basically a rounded "loach back" bottom; The large market has many double-circle bottoms, which appeared from the end of the Ming Dynasty and the Shunzhi period, and was popular until the middle of the Kangxi Dynasty.

There are various types of money, in the early days, more dry payments, more regular scripts in the year, after the middle of the year, all kinds of hall names, picture records, and flower deposits are popular, and popular to Yongzheng. Imitation and pseudo-trust are also more common, especially in imitation Jiajing.

During the Yongzheng () and Qianlong () periods, the blue and white ware mostly imitated the Su Ma Liqing of Yongle and Xuande in the Ming Dynasty, but there were no imported materials, and the end of the pen was dyed with rust marks. The second is the imitation of the understated blue and white. In addition to the difference between the tires, glazes, and green materials, the type of Ming ware is also an important point of distinction: the tire interface of the Ming ware is connected up and down, and the cleaning ware is front and back.

Yongzheng's craftsmanship is fine, and the tire repair is exquisite, while the folk kiln ware is rough and has tire marks. In the Qianlong period, especially in the later period, the craft began to decline, in addition to inheriting the varieties of the previous dynasty, there were also innovative varieties of blue and white exquisite porcelain. The content of the ornamentation is also more diverse than that of Yongzhengshi, but in general, it is dominated by auspicious patterns.

In addition to the year, Yongzheng is more common in miscellaneous treasures, four flowers, animal-shaped models, etc., and the name of the hall is less than that of Kangxi. Qianlong Shitang is more famous than Yongzheng, and there are many seal books in the year, and there are also four flowers.

After Jiaqing (), blue and white porcelain gradually went downhill. The utensils in the early Jiaqing period are basically the same as those of Qianlong, but the craftsmanship is rough, the shape is thick and clumsy, and the glaze is thin and gray, and it is blue. The artifacts of the Daoguang (), Xianfeng () and Tongzhi () periods are generally similar: the blue and white hair color is floating, the fetal quality is coarse, the glaze is thin, the fetal glaze is not tightly combined, and the decoration is mainly auspicious patterns.

Guangxu () blue and white porcelain was once in the middle of the boom, the level of imitation Kangxi ware is higher, but the carcass is lighter, the white glaze is thinner and astringent, and the tire repair is not fine enough. Other utensils are similar to Tongzhi in terms of glaze and shape. Blue and white feeding color ware is more common. In addition to the annual model, there are also "Changchun Palace System", "Kunning Palace System", "Chuxiu Palace System" and so on; Pseudo-trusts are mostly seen in "Kangxi Year System", "Ruoshen Collection" and so on.

The appearance of chemical green material began to appear in Xuantong ().

Huiqing is produced in the Western Regions, Xinjiang, Yunnan and other theories. The hair color of this material is purple and purple, and if it is used alone, it will be scattered, so it is mostly mixed with stone green. Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty to the early Wanli period used this material. Among them, it is divided into green: 10% of stone blue is mixed for mixing water (filling), and the hair color is blue and bright; Medium green: 40% of stone blue is mixed for color (outline), and the brush path is clear and clear.

Zhejiang material, also known as Zhejiang green, is produced in Shaoxing, Jinhua, Zhejiang. In the domestic material, Zhejiang material is the best, its hair color is verdant, from the middle of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, Jingdezhen official kiln blue and white ware are all used in this material.

Pingpingqing, also known as Pi Tangqing, is produced in Leping, Jiangxi. It was used in the late Ming "blank period" and the early period of Chenghua, Hongzhi and Zhengde. This material is elegant, bright and stable, especially making Chenghua blue and white ware famous.

Shiziqing, also known as Shiqing, is produced in Gao'an, Yifeng, and Shanggao in Jiangxi. When this material is used alone, the blue and white hair color is gray and even black, the second generation of the Ming and Qing dynasties generally use this material, and the official kiln is used to adjust and use it with the green.

Zhuming material is produced in Xuanwei, Huize, Yiliang and other counties in Yunnan, among which Xuanwei material is the best. The hair color of this material is bright and pure. Kangxi blue and white mostly use this material.

Su Ma Liqing, that is, Su Ni Ma Qing, Su Bo Mu Qing, Su Ni Bo Qing, etc. The origin of its name is a transliteration of the Persian word "Suleiman". The cobalt material is produced in the village of Quamsa in the Boska Mountains, and the villagers believe that a man named Suleiman discovered the cobalt material, hence the name of the material. Another theory is that Su Ni Ma Qing should be Su Ma Liqing, which is the transliteration of English smalt, which means dark blue or dark blue powder pigment for painting.

This material belongs to the cobalt material of low manganese iron iron, so the blue and white color is thick and verdant, with "rust marks", commonly known as "tin light". Part of the blue and white of the Yuan Dynasty and the green materials used in the Yongle and Xuande official kilns of the Ming Dynasty are of this kind, and the production areas are all in ancient Persia or present-day Syria.

Chemical green material, that is, green material prepared with the chemical cobalt oxide. The hair color is purple-blue, pure, and intense, but frivolous and lacks adhesion, and the price is low. The blue and white ware made of this material lacks the beauty of natural green material.

The ancient blue and white porcelain of the author's country, the painting decoration is delicate and elegant, the text at the bottom of the porcelain, the pattern is varied, and the style of each period has distinctive characteristics of the times. According to the form and type of blue and white porcelain, it can be mainly divided into five categories: chronicle model, auspicious words, hall name, praise model and ornamental model.

On the blue and white porcelain, the method of writing, engraving, printing and other methods is used to indicate the age of porcelain firing, which is called the chronological model. The ancient porcelain of the author's country is mainly based on the chronology, and the chronology is divided into two categories: the year of the emperor and the stem of the year by the sexagenary branch.

During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, the chronicle model began to appear on the blue and white porcelain, and the seal script font was elegant and smooth, and the edge was decorated with lotus petal patterns. Xuanjing is dignified and strong. Chenghua iron silver hook, glazed with clouds. Jiajing's strokes are thick and heavy, and the strength is hidden in the show. The predecessors once summarized the Ming Dynasty chronicle as follows: "Xuande is more, Chenghua is fat, Hongzhi is beautiful, Zhengde is Gong, and Jiajing is miscellaneous".

The Kangxi font of the Qing Dynasty is neat, and the blue and white material is bright. Yongzheng regular script is vigorous and powerful, and the format is exquisite. Qianlong, Jia, Daoguang are mostly seals, and the fonts are arranged closely, like a seal. In modern style, "Jiangxi Porcelain Company" is more, and the regular script is beautiful, among which there is also the English style "CHINA", which is the symbol of modern export porcelain, and is the earliest English model used in blue and white. There are very few years of blue and white porcelain in the folk kiln, and there are "big next year" and so on, and the font is sloppy. Written casually.

Writing words and sentences containing auspicious meanings are often seen on folk blue and white porcelain. The font is mostly grassy, chic and elegant, all in one go. Phrases such as "longevity and well-being", "longevity and wealth", and "all blessings are the same" express people's yearning for a happy life.

The elegant name of the hall and the name of the person are written on the porcelain as a symbol of private collection. There are "Yuyan Book House", "Ruoshen Collection", "White Jade Zhai" and so on. The famous porcelain is well-made and has a high collection value.

It entrusts the love of ceramic art for porcelain, such as "jade treasures", "ancient treasures", "Changjiang beautiful jade" and so on. The four-character model of "Gwadi Jade" is fresh and handsome, and it is very interesting. "Tile" is pottery, which has a long history than porcelain, and is the eldest brother, and the porcelain is whiter and smoother than the beautiful "jade", and the "jade" can only be relegated to the "younger brother".

Also called "pattern model", decorate the bottom of the vessel with concise patterns, which is the characteristic style of folk blue and white porcelain, and the "Xiao shape seal" in the seal carving has the same and different ideas. The patterns include Bogutu, dark eight immortals, eight auspicious and so on. The "dried bean curd" in the ornamental section is a diamond-shaped frame structure, just like a high-rise building in a modern building, and is a mark of a folk workshop, also called a "flower monogram".

Blue and white porcelain, also known as blue and white porcelain on white ground, is made of cobalt ore containing cobalt oxide as raw material, depicting decoration on the ceramic body, and then covered with a layer of transparent glaze, which is fired at one time by a high-temperature reduction flame. The cobalt material is blue after firing, and has the characteristics of strong tinting strength, bright color, high firing rate and stable color.

At present, the earliest blue and white porcelain specimens found are from the Tang Dynasty; Mature blue and white porcelain appeared in the Yuan dynasty; In the Ming Dynasty, blue and white became the mainstream of porcelain; It reached its peak during the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, it also created and burned varieties such as blue and white five-colored, peacock green glazed blue and white, bean green glazed blue and white, blue and white red color, yellow ground blue and white, and brother glaze blue and white.

When was blue and white porcelain produced? There are different opinions, and there is no consensus. Let's start with the facts. In the forties of this century, people found a blue and white porcelain vase of the Yuan Dynasty with the inscription of "Zhizheng 11th year". Since then, people who have studied ancient porcelain in China at home and abroad have identified many blue and white porcelains that have been handed down or unearthed and are similar to the craftsmanship and decorative style of this porcelain according to the characteristics of the shape, tire, glaze, color and decoration of this porcelain.

After this bottle with the year model was made public, Chinese and foreign studies of ancient ceramics were used as the basis for the founding of blue and white in the Yuan Dynasty. However, these blue and white porcelain are exquisitely decorated, the material color is rich, and the momentum is magnificent, and they have high attainments in both decoration and craftsmanship. The blue and white porcelain of Jingdezhen has generally appeared in the Yuan Dynasty, and the style is fixed and tends to mature, so some people believe that such a mature blue and white porcelain cannot appear suddenly, it must have gone through a stage of grass creation and gradually reached such a level.

Therefore, in the founding period of blue and white porcelain, in recent years, some people have the feeling that the blue and white porcelain of the Song Dynasty spread to the rivers and lakes, resulting in the rapid development of Jingdezhen porcelain, and it is presumed that the blue and white porcelain sprouted in the Jingdezhen Song kiln with excellent texture and clear blue and blue transparent glaze at that time.

After liberation, especially after the Cultural Revolution, great achievements have been made in the examination of cultural relics in our country. A large number of archaeological excavation data provide a scientific basis for us to understand the appearance of early blue and white. In recent years, the Institute of Archaeology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences has unearthed blue and white porcelain with exact stratigraphic relationships when excavating the ruins of Yuan Dadu and the Jingdezhen Ceramics Museum to excavate the ancient porcelain kiln ruins of Hutian.

For example, when the Jingdezhen Ceramics Museum tried to excavate the ruins of the ancient porcelain kiln in Hutian, it found a fragment of the bottom of the shadow blue bowl painted under the blue and black, and the tiger-shaped pillow with brown spots and black color under the shadow green glaze, which provided some material materials for the study of the origin of the underglaze painting of Jingdezhen porcelain and the germination of blue and white porcelain.

Since so far, the early blue and white porcelain found is produced in Jingdezhen in the Yuan Dynasty, and the blue and white porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty unearthed from the ancient porcelain kiln site in Hutian, Jingdezhen is basically the same as the blue and white porcelain of this period unearthed at home and abroad, so we can say that blue and white porcelain appeared in the world. At the latest in the Yuan Dynasty of our country (from the seventies of the thirteenth century to the sixties of the fourteenth century), and made for the potters of our country.

Blue and white porcelain has a very high appreciation and collection value, has always been loved by people all over the world, the historical value of blue and white porcelain is very high, originated in the Tang Dynasty. Although blue and white porcelain was produced in the Song Dynasty, it still belonged to the initial stage, and the development was slow, and there were few heirloom artifacts.

The blue and white porcelain of the Yuan Dynasty tends to mature, especially the blue and white porcelain in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province is the most exquisite, and a certain number of blue and white porcelain has been handed down, becoming the treasure collection of major museums in the world and the sought-after goods in various auctions today.

The development of blue and white porcelain in the Yuan Dynasty has been relatively mature, and the blue and white materials were divided into imported and domestic at that time, and the pigments used in the early days came from overseas, called "Su Ma Liqing" or "Su Bo Ni Qing", referred to as "Su Qing".

The carcass of blue and white porcelain in the Yuan Dynasty is generally thicker and heavier, with bright colors and dense compositions, and multi-layer decoration is adopted, and the patterns are mostly dragon and phoenix, fish algae, mandarin ducks, lotus herons, tangled branch flowers, landscapes, and character stories. The content is rich, the penmanship is free, vivid and expressive; The picture is rich in layers, full in composition, and highly decorative.

Many of the artifacts are depicted with ornaments such as eight treasures, lotus flowers, seahorses, and large cloud heads, which are clearly influenced by Lamaist art. Yuan blue and white shape is beautiful, simple and dignified. There are magnificent and majestic vessels, such as large pots, large plates, large bowls, etc.; There are also fine and dexterous small utensils, such as tall bowls, tall cups, cups, plates, etc., which are light and thin on the carcass.

The blue and white lines of the Yuan Dynasty are vigorous and powerful, and the flat painting combines hooking, squeezing, dotting and dyeing, showing the same artistic effect as ink painting, showing the superb painting talent of the craftsmen of the Yuan Dynasty.

The Ming Dynasty was the peak period of the development of blue and white porcelain, whether it was the official kiln in Jingdezhen or the folk kilns in various places, many exquisite masterpieces were created. The blue and white porcelain of this period has always been regarded as a model of Chinese blue and white porcelain, which has been imitated by later generations.

In particular, the blue and white porcelain fired in the official kilns of Yongle, Xuande and Chenghua, Jiajing and Wanli is famous for its fine glaze, strong cyan color, diverse shapes and rich decoration. During the Chenghua period, blue and white porcelain used a new kind of green material, called "Ping Ping Qing", also called "Potang Qing", which was produced in Ruizhou, Jiangxi.

"Equality Blue" has a stable hair color, elegant and soft color, giving people a looming and ethereal feeling. Chenghua blue and white porcelain, light and elegant color, glaze fat, caressing jade texture; The fetal quality is delicate and pure, and the white glaze is moist and moist. From Jiajing to Wanli, the pigment used to fire blue and white porcelain is a pigment called "huiqing". The so-called "Huiqing", also known as "Huiqing", comes from the Arab region like "Su Qing". The blue and white material in the Wanli period was produced in Zhejiang, which was also named "Zhejiang material".

In the Qing Dynasty, the emperors of Kangxi, Yongzheng and Qianlong paid great attention to the production process, enamel texture and picture decoration of porcelain, and even reached the point where they had to do everything personally, so that the production skills of blue and white porcelain in the Qing Dynasty reached a new height. In terms of ornamentation, the blue and white of the folk kiln is more vivid and lively, with various forms and full of life.

There are many historical themes and opera story paintings, such as the three friends of the cold year, Mi Fu Baishi, "The Legend of the West Chamber", "Romance of the Three Kingdoms" and so on. Painting on porcelain blanks, a color can show a variety of shades of shade, the same as Chinese painting "ink into five colors", there is a saying that "materials are divided into five colors". The blue and white of the official kiln, the size of the utensils is moderate, the picture effect attaches importance to the charm, and the shape changes pay attention to the rhythm. The blue and white of the folk kiln is eclectic, the pen is skillful and strong, the painting style is natural and casual, and it has a strong folk style.

Fetal bones, or fetal bones. After the porcelain blank is sintered at high temperature, it becomes a "tire". The main components of porcelain are silicon oxide, alumina and a small amount of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, iron and other elements. The white porcelain is the basis for firing blue and white porcelain, which is generally made of porcelain stone and kaolin, and is fired at a high temperature of more than 1300 °C.

Glaze is a vitreous covering layer attached to the surface of the porcelain body. Glaze has similar physical and chemical properties to glass, and plays a protective and decorative role in the porcelain carcass. The main components of the glaze are basically the same as those of the porcelain body, but the content of potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium and other fluxes is higher, so that the glaze juice is easy to melt at high temperature, filling the pores on the surface of the porcelain body, appearing bright and smooth, as if putting on a neat and beautiful coat for the porcelain.

Due to the differences in the composition of the tire and glaze used to fire blue and white porcelain in each period, and the process of repairing the tire, digging the foot, and applying the glaze is also different, it is helpful to distinguish the age and authenticity of the blue and white porcelain through the observation and analysis of the tire, glaze and production process.

The porcelain fetal quality is relatively coarse and heavy, and the tire color is yellow-white and gray-white. Because the rinsing and screening of the tire material is very rough, it is often seen that there are some gray, yellow or black small sand particles in the tire soil, and there are obvious small bubbles or pores in the porcelain material.

In order to cover up the lack of tire color, a layer of white makeup soil (also known as "tire protection glaze") is applied between the tire and glaze of the utensils, and the glaze color is also gray and milky, and the glaze often has fine ice cracks.

The kilns of porcelain are concentrated in Jingdezhen, Jiangxi Province, because there are abundant high-quality porcelain clay resources. As early as the late Tang Dynasty, Jingdezhen porcelain workers used the kaolin clay abundant in the vicinity to burn the delicate green and white porcelain.

The craftsmen of the Yuan Dynasty switched to the advanced "binary formula", that is, adding porcelain stone to kaolin, increasing the content of alumina in the porcelain fetus, improving the density and whiteness of the porcelain fetus, and laying the foundation for the emergence of mature blue and white porcelain. Painting blue and white porcelain on such a white carcass can bring out the delicate and pure beauty of blue and white. The glaze of Jingdezhen Yuan blue and white porcelain is also very transparent, with uniform thickness and strong glass texture. The glaze is slightly bluish, which looks calm and elegant.

Porcelain is more advanced than that of the Tang Dynasty, and the fetal quality is relatively fine, hard, and less porous; The carcass is also lighter and thinner than in the Tang Dynasty; The tire color is white and grayish, and the exposed fetus is flint red; The glaze layer is thin and translucent, and the glaze color is blue-gray with open pieces.

The carcass of porcelain is lighter and thinner than that of the Yuan Dynasty and heavier than that of the Qing Dynasty on the whole. The fetal quality is relatively white and delicate (except for some folk kiln coarse porcelain or pulp tire blue and white porcelain). The glaze is thick and moisturized, and the glaze is bluish.

The carcass of porcelain is generally thinner than that of the Ming Dynasty. The carcass is slightly thicker and heavier in the early stage, and the fetal quality is firm and fine; The mid-stage carcass is light and thin, and the tire color is white; The late carcass is thick and heavy, and the fetal texture is coarse and loose. The glaze is not as thick as the Ming Dynasty, the glaze layer tends to be thin, the glaze is whiter in the early stage, and the glaze is smooth; After the middle period, the glaze color is bluish, or blue-gray, and the glaze undulates like waves.

The blue and white porcelain of the Tang Dynasty was in the period of indiscriminate use of blue and white porcelain. The specimens that can be seen now include more than 20 pieces of blue and white porcelain fragments unearthed in Yangzhou in the 70s and 80s of the 20th century; a blue-and-white striped complex from the collection of the Fung Ping Shan Museum in Hong Kong; a floral bowl from the collection of the Museum of Boston, USA; a fish algae jar from the collection of the Copenhagen Museum in Denmark; A stippled plum pattern cover from the collection of the Nanjing Museum.

Through the study of the tire, glaze and color of the porcelain pieces unearthed in Yangzhou, and the analysis of the material and technical conditions of the Gongxian kiln in the Tang Dynasty, it is preliminarily concluded that the origin of Tang Qinghua is the Gongxian kiln in Henan. In recent years, a small number of blue and white porcelain specimens have been unearthed at the kiln site in Gongxian County, which further confirms that the origin of Tang blue and white porcelain is in Gongxian kiln, Henan.

Judging from the blue and white porcelain pieces unearthed in Yangzhou, the green material has a strong color and crystalline spots, which is a low-manganese, low-iron, copper-containing cobalt material, and should be a cobalt material imported from Central and Western Asia. The tire is coarse and loose, beige gray, and the sintering degree is poor. The bottom glaze is yellowish in white, and the enamel is coarse. Apply makeup soil between the glazes.

The type of utensils is mainly small pieces, including doubles, bowls, cans, lids, etc. Except for the fish algae pattern jar in the collection of the Copenhagen Museum in Denmark, the rest are floral and grass patterns. Among them, the flower and grass patterns are divided into two categories, one is a typical traditional Chinese flower and plant, with small flowers such as caryophyllus and plum blossom being common; The other type is to sandwich loose leaf patterns in geometric figures such as diamonds, which is a typical arabesque pattern. From this point of view, combined with the location where Tang blue and white porcelain was unearthed more (Yangzhou was an important port in the Tang Dynasty), it can be proved that Tang blue and white porcelain was mainly for export.

After Tang Qinghua went through the initial period, it did not develop rapidly, but went into decline. So far, we can only see more than ten pieces of porcelain pieces unearthed from the two tower base sites. The first is excavated in 1957 in Longquan County, Zhejiang Province, Jinsha Taji, a total of 13 pieces of blue and white bowl fragments were unearthed. The tower bricks of the tower have the absolute date of the Northern Song Dynasty "Taiping Xingguo two years" (977); The other is in 1970 in Shaoxing City, Zhejiang Province, in the base of the Huancui Pagoda, unearthed a fragment of the belly of a blue and white bowl. The tower tablet unearthed at the base of the tower proves that this tower was built in the first year of Xianchun in the Southern Song Dynasty (1265).

These more than ten pieces of Song blue and white porcelain are all fragments of bowls. Some of the fetal quality is coarse, and some are thinner. The pattern is decorated with chrysanthemum pattern, circle pattern, string pattern, line pattern, etc. the blue and white hair color in the front part is darker and blacker; The latter one is lighter. If the hair color is darker, it should be because the transparent glaze of the outer cover is too thin. Zhejiang Province itself is rich in cobalt earth, and these blue and white porcelains should be made of local cobalt materials. They have no direct continuity with Tang Qinghua.

Mature blue and white porcelain appeared in Jingdezhen in the Yuan Dynasty.

Due to the use of the binary formula of "porcelain stone + kaolin", the content of Al2O3 in the tire is increased, the firing temperature is increased, and the deformation rate in the roasting process is reduced. The carcass of most utensils is also thick, and the shape is thick and full. The tire color is slightly gray and yellow, and the tire is loose. The bottom glaze is divided into two types: blue and egg white, and the milky feeling is strong. The green materials used include domestic materials and imported materials: the domestic materials are high manganese and low iron green materials, which are blue and grayish black; The imported material is a low-manganese high-iron iron type green material, which is verdant and bright in color, with rust marks.

In some utensils, there are also cases where domestic materials and imported materials are used together. The main types of utensils are daily utensils, offering vessels, tomb vessels and other categories, especially the bamboo goblet, with a seat, and the tomb ware are the most characteristic of the times. In addition to the jade pot spring bottom foot glaze, the bottom of other utensils is more sandy and the bottom is unglazed, see flint red.

The biggest feature of the ornamentation of Yuan blue and white is that the composition is plump, and the layers are not chaotic. The brushwork is more common with a stroke of dots, smooth and powerful; The sketch rendering is thick and composed. The motifs include people, animals, plants, poems, etc. The characters include Gao Shitu (Four Loves), historical figures, etc.; Animals include dragons and phoenixes, unicorns, mandarin ducks, swimming fish, etc.; Common plants include peonies, lotus, orchids, pine, bamboo, plum, ganoderma lucidum, flowers and leaves, melons and fruits, etc.; Poetry is rare. The petals of the painted peony are mostly white-edged; The dragon pattern is a small head, a thin neck, a long body, three or four claws, a ridge on the back, and the scales are mostly grid-shaped, vigorous and fierce. The auxiliary ornaments are mostly curly grass, lotus petals, ancient money, sea water, back lines, clouds, banana leaves, etc.

The shape of the lotus petal pattern resembles a "brace brace", and the lotus petal is often painted with Taoist miscellaneous treasures; Ruyi cloud pattern is often painted with eight strange seas or broken branch lotus, entwined branch flowers, painted three-order clouds; The middle stem of the banana leaf is solid (filled with green material); The sea pattern is a combination of thick lines and thin lines.

The Ming and Qing dynasties were a period when blue and white porcelain reached its peak and then declined. The Yongle and Xuande periods of the Ming Dynasty were a peak in the development of blue and white porcelain, which was known for its exquisite production; During the Kangxi period of the Qing Dynasty, the blue and white porcelain developed to the peak with "colorful blue and white"; After Qianlong in the Qing Dynasty, due to the development of pastel porcelain and gradually declined, although in the late Qing Dynasty (Guangxu) once prosperous, in the end of the Kangxi Dynasty could not continue the prosperity of the Kangxi Dynasty. Generally speaking, the official kiln ware of this period was rigorous and exquisite; The folk kiln ware is casual, free and easy, and the picture is freehand. From the late Ming Dynasty onwards, blue and white painting gradually absorbed elements of Chinese painting techniques.

At the beginning of the Ming Dynasty (Hongwu Dynasty 1368-1402), the blue and white ware includes large and small plates, bowls, plum bottles, jade pots, spring bottles, etc. The green materials used are mainly domestic materials, and a small amount of imported materials is not excluded. The blue and white hair color is pale blue, and some are grayish. Some of the former have halos. The ornamental layout still has the legacy of multi-layer decoration in the Yuan Dynasty, and the subject matter has not changed much, but many details have changed: such as the middle stem of the banana leaf is left blank; The white edges of the petals are more obvious and clear than those of the Yuan Dynasty; The "missing" part of the peony leaf is deeper, which is not as fat as that of the Yuan Dynasty; The chrysanthemum is painted as a "flat chrysanthemum", and the core of the flower is expressed in a checkered pattern; The dragon pattern is still slender, but in addition to the three or four claws, five claws have appeared, and the claws are shaped like wind wheels, and the momentum is not as fierce and vigorous as the Yuan Dragon.

The Ruyi cloud head of the auxiliary ornament was changed from the third-order cloud of the Yuan Dynasty to the second-order cloud; The lotus petal pattern is painted with eight treasures of Buddhism (the Yuan Dynasty painted Taoist miscellaneous treasures). Bowls and small plates are mostly painted with cloud patterns, which are only painted on the upper part of the outer wall of the utensils. The bottom of the utensils is more flat-cut, and the sand bottom is glazeless and the kiln is red. There is no year, and there are very few utensils with money.

The blue and white porcelain of Yongle and Xuande () shows a high level of craftsmanship. The green materials used in this period are mainly Su mud and green, and there are many "rust marks". There are also some domestic green materials. But even if it is a domestic material, the hair color is quite good. There are plates, bowls, pots, pots, cups, etc.

In particular, there are some non-Han cultural types such as monk's hat pots, ribbon flat pots, and flower waters, reflecting the cultural exchanges and integration with foreign regions and foreign ethnic groups during this period. Ornamentation is mostly seen in various entwined branches or broken branches of flowers and fruits, dragons and phoenixes, sea water, sea monsters, swimming fish, etc. The fetal quality is more delicate and dense than before. The enamel is moist, and cellulite is common. Compared with the utensils of the two dynasties, the shape of Yongle is lighter and thinner, beautiful, the blue and white hair color is more intense, the rust marks are heavier, the ornamentation is more sparse, the depiction is more delicate, the bottom glaze is whiter, and there are many utensils.

The body of Xuande ware is thicker and heavier, the decoration is tighter, the bottom glaze is slightly green, there are more models with paragraphs, there are four or six characters of the year, and there is a "Xuande cloth body" said. Generally speaking, Xuande blue and white has a large number, many varieties and wide influence, so there is a saying that "blue and white first recommend Xuande".

The three dynasties of Orthodoxy, Jingtai and Tianshun () led to economic recession due to political turmoil, natural and man-made disasters and other factors. Moreover, from the beginning of orthodoxy, it has repeatedly ordered the "prohibition of official porcelain", so the number of porcelain in this period is small, which is called the "blank period" in the history of ceramics. Generally speaking, the types of vessels in this period are mainly bottles, cans, bowls, cups, plates and so on. There is still a part of the green material used that is "Su Qing".

Some of the blue and white hair color is intense, similar to Xuande, and some are elegant, which is close to Chenghua. The glaze is mostly gray. The carcass is thicker and heavier. The bottom foot trimming is not delicate, and there is a sense of thickness; Mostly see shallow and wide flat sand bottom, some have sticky sand, and some see flint red.

The mouth of the bottle and can in orthodoxy is straight-necked, which is consistent with the Xuande ware; When the weather is good, it is like a trapezoidal narrow at the top and wide at the bottom, which is similar to the time of Chenghua. The body of the bottle and can is full of shoulders, round belly, downward, and slightly outward; The body of the plum bottle is more slender than that of Xuande. The ornamentation is mainly dotted with a stroke, including figures, flowers, dragons and phoenixes, peacocks, etc.

The background of the characters is mostly painted with large cloud patterns. The edge of the bottle and can is decorated with sea water pattern or banana leaf pattern, and the banana leaf stalk is left blank, and the leaf surface is wider, like a small tree. The orthodox is the word Fu; Jingtai began to move from the heart of the instrument to the bottom of the instrument, in addition to the word Fu, there are also "Taiping Year Made", "Taiping", "Big Next Year" and so on; Tianshun has chronological models, Sanskrit models, etc.

The three dynasties of Chenghua (), Hongzhi (), and Zhengde () were in the middle of the Ming Dynasty. Before the middle of Chenghua and Hongzhi, it was used as equal blue, and the hair color was light and elegant. In the late Hongzhi period and Zhengde, the color is gray-blue. However, there are also some artifacts in this period with strong color and rust spots.

Chenghua is more downplay blue and white. The ornamental layout is sparse in the early stage, dense in the later stage, and more paintings are painted Sanguo, Sanyou, Jiuqiu, Coats, baby play, dragon wearing flowers, etc. The flowers and leaves are like palms stretched; The leaves are toothy, and the flowers and leaves have no positive and negative yin and yang; The aquatic plants of fish algae float like kelp; The mountain stone is key-like and has no concave and convex feeling; The edge decoration is relatively simple, and the edge of the mouth and the ring foot of the bowl, plate, cup and so on are only decorated with string patterns; Dragons are mostly Kuilong, with long trunks like elephant trunks; The ornamentation of the cross-pestle, Arabic and other religious content is common.

The fetus is delicate and white, and the glaze is very fine and has a jade texture, but it is slightly blue. There are pots, plum bottles, washers, trays, plates, cups, bowls, etc., and the furnace is a three-breast-foot cylinder or drum-shaped furnace. In addition to the "day" word jar, there are also "Ming Chenghua year" six-character single and double-line paragraphs; The main items in the picture are Fang Sheng, silver ingots, etc.

The early and middle Hongji artifacts are roughly the same as Chenghua, and even more delicate and soft than Chenghua. In the later period, it is close to Zhengde. The flower and leaf patterns are fine and dense, the Sanskrit patterns are increased, the dragon patterns are slender and soft, and the characters are free and easy. The paragraph is known as six characters and four characters.

Zhengde still uses domestic materials, and the early stage uses equal green, gray and blue. In the late stage, it is used to return to green. Some fainted. The shape, fetal quality, and enamel of its utensils are close to those of Hongji, and the bubbles are dense. Deep-bellied bowls, with seats, etc. are popular. In the later stage, it is more common to see large tools.

The common ornaments include phoenix flowers, fish algae, lion hydrangea, garden baby play, tree stone railings, lotus eight treasures, etc., and the paintings are thicker than those of Hongji. The bottom of the bowl is down, and the bottom of the bowl appears to be the bottom of the chicken. At the bottom of the vessel, there are many kiln red, sticky sand, marks and other phenomena. There are four-character and six-character regular script paragraphs for the year, and the word "made" is used individually.

In the late Ming Dynasty, Jiajing (), Longqing (), Wanli () three dynasties, Jiajing was the longest, so the color of the utensils of this dynasty was not the same, the early ones were similar to the Zhengde vessels, and the hair color was gray and blue. However, the unique feature of this period is the use of green materials.

In addition to the traditional still popular, the decoration of Taoist colors has increased significantly, such as cloud cranes, eight immortals, eight trigrams, Taoist eight treasures, etc. The flower group is a unique ornament. In addition, there are baby plays, Coats, fish algae diagrams, etc. The forehead of the doll head in the baby play picture is prominent. The tire and glaze are small and fine, and the large and coarse. There are many large instruments.

Octagonal, square, hexagonal, upper and lower gourd bottles and other special-shaped devices are common. The pearl box is a unique type of this court. The word "system" and "manufacturing" are used, and the word "system" is the majority. The book on the bottom of the vessel "Jinlu Dajiao altar" is a sacrificial vessel. There are also famous halls such as Dongshutang and Dongluo Hall.

Due to the short time of the Longqing Dynasty, there were fewer utensils, and there were fewer large and annual utensils. The green material is used to return to green, the color is stable and pure, and the blue is purple (not as purple as Jiajing). The ornamentation is similar to that of the Jiajing Dynasty. Because it is mainly small, the tire and glaze are more delicate.

More hexagonal, octagonal and other shapes. There are two kinds of official kiln ware: "made in the year of Longqing in the Ming Dynasty" and "made in the year of Longqing", and there is no "system" paragraph; There are four characters of "Longqing year" or "system" for folk kilns; The auspicious language has Wanfu Youtong, Fushou Kangning, etc., and the ode language has rich and beautiful instruments.

In the early Wanli period, Huiqing was used, and in the middle and late periods, Shiziqing and Zhejiang materials were used. How much to downplay the blue and white. In addition to the traditional ornamentation, the brocade open light ornament is also popular; The ornamentation layout is dense and the theme is unclear; In addition, it is also common for the word Fu Lu Shou to be decorated. Bottles are more commonly seen in hollowing, looping and other processes. In addition to the traditional type, a new wall bottle has appeared. The fetal quality is coarse, and the glaze is white and blue.

There are many styles of "Ming Wanli Year Manufacturing", and there are also "Ming Wanli Year System" and "Wanli Year Making"; There are many pseudo-deposits, including Xuande, Chenghua, and Jiajing. In general, the level of craftsmanship has regressed.

At the end of the Ming Dynasty, due to political turmoil, all industries withered, and the ceramic industry was also depressed and deserted. After the nineteenth year of the Apocalypse, the imperial court did not order the official kiln to be built, so there were very few Apocalypse Year instruments, mainly the "Great Tomorrow Apocalypse Year System", and there were also "Apocalypse Year System" models.

In the folk kiln, there is an increase in the number of various picture records, hall names, auspicious words, and ode words, such as Yutang Jiaqi and Wanfu are the same; There are many pseudo-trusts, including Yongle, Xuande, Chenghua, Tianshun, Zhengde, Jiajing and other dynasties, among which the only pseudo-trust Tianshun is the apocalypse. The ornamentation is still dominated by traditional ornamentation, but the ornamentation of Taoist content is less than that of Wanli time, and the painting is rude. The ornamentation in this period is more sparse and the breath of life is heavier. The carcass is thick and heavy, the tire is coarse and loose, the shape of the vessel is irregular, the bottom of the vessel is sticky sand, the bottom collapses, and the marks have become the characteristics of the times.

Chongzhen has no official money. There are not many types of utensils, and there are many bowl-type stoves, in addition to bowls, cups, bottles, flower goose, etc. Green materials include stone green, Zhejiang materials, etc. Those with coarse hair color are more faint, and those with fine hair are stable. In addition to traditional motifs, Coats figures are particularly common. Infant play pictures, children's heads and feet are small, and the proportions are not harmonious. Landscape figures are typical features such as autumn grass, bracket clouds, and small suns. The fetus is coarse. The glaze is white and blue, and some are gray.

The Shunzhi () Dynasty in the early Qing Dynasty was not long, but it was a critical period of inheriting the past and opening up the future, laying a solid foundation for the peak of the later Kangxi period. Shunzhi blue and white ware mainly has the following characteristics: there are fewer types, mainly furnaces, goblets, bottles, large and small plates, bowls, cans, etc.

In general, the carcass is rougher, and the carcass of large utensils such as furnaces, large plates, and goblets is thick and heavy, while the carcasses of small utensils such as small plates and bowls are lighter and thinner. However, there are also individual utensils with delicate and dense fetal qualities, which can be seen in the shape of glutinous rice. The bottom glaze is mostly white and flashing blue, and some are slightly gray, and the glaze layer is thin. The blue and white material should be used in combination with Zhejiang material and stone green, resulting in some verdant and some blue.

Among them, the blue and white hair color of the furnace is mostly verdant, and the hair color of other utensils is gray and blue. Ornaments are mostly seen in flowers and birds, landscapes, travertine, autumn grass, boats on the river, monsters, rui beasts, plantains, clouds, etc. The large plate likes to draw a blue and white coil at the edge of the mouth, and then draw the main decoration in the circle; The small plate is mostly painted with a sycamore leaf on one side of the plate, and the other side is written with similar verses such as "a sycamore leaf falls, and the world is autumn".

Bottles, goblets, cans and other large utensils also like to use blue and white threads as decorative separations. The drawing method is a combination of outline, flat painting, rendering, and line drawing. The painting brushstrokes are arbitrary, although they are neater than those of the late Ming Dynasty, but they still do not see the rigorous and meticulous style of Kangxi. The layout of the picture is relatively full, especially the large plates, cans, bottles, goose and other utensils.

Beginning to show changes in the color of the law and shades, but not yet mature. Bottles, goblets and other flat sand bottoms. There are many glaze shrinkage spots at the bottom of plates, bowls, cans, etc., and sand sticking to the bottom foot is more common. The bottom of the bowl is marked. There are many folk kilns, few official kilns, and there are very few artifacts with old models.

The Kangxi Dynasty has a long time span, rich types of utensils, and a high level of craftsmanship. In this period, Zhejiang material and pearl material are used, and the blue and white hair color is gray in the early stage, and it is green and blue after the middle stage, bright and bright. In the early stage of painting, single-line flat painting was the mainstay, and the momentum was rough; After the middle period, he used a combination of sketching, rendering, and striking, and his paintings were fine, and he was highly regarded for his blue and white color scale (the so-called "blue and white color").

There are various ornamental themes, including landscape figures, dragons and phoenixes, flowers and birds, fish, insects and animals, poems, Bogu, etc., among which the most characteristic of the times is the ice plum, the cultivation and weaving map, the knife and horse people, the double peony and so on. The white edge of the pattern is more obvious than that of the other dynasties. The fetus is dense and fine white, and it is glutinous rice cake-like. The glaze is hard, tightly combined with the fetus, see orange peel or brown eyes, flash blue in the early white, bright white after the middle stage.

In addition to the daily utensils, ornamental porcelain has increased a lot, and the typical vessels include lid jars, phoenix tails, flower goose, elephant leg bottles, pen holders, etc. The bottom foot of the utensils also has strong characteristics of the times: the carved ware has more than two layers of bottoms; The pen holder has a jade bottom; In the early stage, the foot is mostly a sharp "crucian carp back" bottom with oblique cutting on both sides, and after the middle stage, it is basically a rounded "loach back" bottom; The large market has many double-circle bottoms, which appeared from the end of the Ming Dynasty and the Shunzhi period, and was popular until the middle of the Kangxi Dynasty. There are various types of money, in the early days, more dry payments, more regular scripts in the year, after the middle of the year, all kinds of hall names, picture records, and flower deposits are popular, and popular to Yongzheng. Imitation and pseudo-trust are also more common, especially in imitation Jiajing.

During the Yongzheng () and Qianlong () periods, the blue and white ware mostly imitated the Su Ma Liqing of Yongle and Xuande in the Ming Dynasty, but there were no imported materials, and the end of the pen was dyed with rust marks. The second is the imitation of the understated blue and white. In addition to the difference between the tires, glazes, and green materials, the type of Ming ware is also an important point of distinction: the tire interface of the Ming ware is connected up and down, and the cleaning ware is connected front and back.

Yongzheng's craftsmanship is fine, and the tire repair is exquisite, while the folk kiln ware is rough and has tire marks. In the Qianlong period, especially in the later period, the craft began to decline, in addition to inheriting the varieties of the previous dynasty, there were also innovative varieties of blue and white exquisite porcelain. The content of the ornamentation is also more diverse than that of Yongzhengshi, but in general, it is dominated by auspicious patterns.

In addition to the year, Yongzheng is more common in miscellaneous treasures, four flowers, animal-shaped models, etc., and the name of the hall is less than that of Kangxi. Qianlong Shitang is more famous than Yongzheng, and there are many seal books in the year, and there are also four flowers.

After Jiaqing (), blue and white porcelain gradually went downhill. The utensils in the early Jiaqing period are basically the same as those of Qianlong, but the craftsmanship is rough, the shape is thick and clumsy, and the glaze is thin and gray, and it is blue. The artifacts of the Daoguang (), Xianfeng () and Tongzhi () periods are generally similar: the blue and white hair color floats, the fetal quality is coarse and loose, the glaze is thin, the fetal glaze is not tightly combined, and the pattern is decorated with auspicious patterns.

Guangxu () blue and white porcelain was once in the middle of the boom, the level of imitation Kangxi ware is higher, but the carcass is lighter, the white glaze is thinner and astringent, and the tire repair is not fine enough. Other utensils are similar to Tongzhi in terms of glaze and shape. Blue and white feeding color ware is more common. In addition to the annual model, there are also "Changchun Palace System", "Kunning Palace System", "Chuxiu Palace System" and so on; Pseudo-trusts are mostly seen in "Kangxi Year System", "Ruoshen Collection" and so on.

The appearance of chemical green material began to appear in Xuantong ().

The ancient blue and white porcelain of the author's country, the painting decoration is delicate and elegant, the text at the bottom of the porcelain, the pattern is varied, and the style of each period has distinctive characteristics of the times. According to the form and type of blue and white porcelain, it can be mainly divided into five categories: chronicle model, auspicious words, hall name, praise model and ornamental model.

On the blue and white porcelain, the method of writing, engraving, printing and other methods is used to indicate the age of porcelain firing, which is called the chronological model. The ancient porcelain of the author's country is mainly based on the chronology, and the chronology is divided into two categories: the year of the emperor and the stem of the year by the sexagenary branch. During the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty, the chronicle model began to appear on the blue and white porcelain, and the seal script font was elegant and smooth, and the edge was decorated with lotus petal patterns.

Xuanjing is dignified and strong. Chenghua iron silver hook, glazed with clouds. Jiajing's strokes are thick and heavy, and the strength is hidden in the show. The predecessors once summarized the Ming Dynasty chronicle as follows: "Xuande is more, Chenghua is fat, Hongzhi is beautiful, Zhengde is Gong, and Jiajing is miscellaneous". The Kangxi font of the Qing Dynasty is neat, and the blue and white material is bright. Yongzheng regular script is vigorous and powerful, and the format is exquisite.

Qianlong, Jia, Daoguang are mostly seals, and the fonts are arranged closely, like a seal. In modern style, "Jiangxi Porcelain Company" is more, and the regular script is beautiful, among which there is also the English style "CHINA", which is the symbol of modern export porcelain, and is the earliest English model used in blue and white. There are very few years of blue and white porcelain in the folk kiln, and there are "big next year" and so on, and the font is sloppy. Written casually.

Writing words and sentences containing auspicious meanings are often seen on folk blue and white porcelain. The font is mostly grassy, chic and elegant, all in one go. Phrases such as "longevity and well-being", "longevity and wealth", and "all blessings are the same" express people's yearning for a happy life.

The elegant name of the hall and the name of the person are written on the porcelain as a symbol of private collection. There are "Yuyan Book House", "Ruoshen Collection", "White Jade Zhai" and so on. The famous porcelain is well-made and has a high collection value.

It entrusts the love of ceramic art for porcelain, such as "jade treasures", "ancient treasures", "Changjiang beautiful jade" and so on. The four-character model of "Gwadi Jade" is fresh and handsome, and it is very interesting. "Tile" is pottery, which has a long history than porcelain, and is the eldest brother, and the porcelain is whiter and smoother than the beautiful "jade", and the "jade" can only be relegated to the "younger brother".

Also called "pattern model", decorate the bottom of the vessel with concise patterns, which is the characteristic style of folk blue and white porcelain, and the "Xiao shape seal" in the seal carving has the same and different ideas. The patterns include Bogutu, dark eight immortals, eight auspicious and so on. The "dried bean curd" in the ornamental section is a diamond-shaped frame structure, just like a high-rise building in a modern building, and is a mark of a folk workshop, also called a "flower monogram".

Huiqing is produced in the Western Regions, Xinjiang, Yunnan and other theories. The hair color of this material is purple and purple, and if it is used alone, it will be scattered, so it is mostly mixed with stone green. Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty to the early Wanli period used this material. Among them, it is divided into green: 10% of stone blue is mixed for mixing water (filling), and the hair color is blue and bright; Medium green: 40% of stone blue is mixed for color (outline), and the brush path is clear and clear.

Zhejiang material, also known as Zhejiang green, is produced in Shaoxing, Jinhua, Zhejiang. In the domestic material, Zhejiang material is the best, its hair color is verdant, from the middle of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty to the Qing Dynasty, Jingdezhen official kiln blue and white ware are all used in this material.

Pingpingqing, also known as Pi Tangqing, is produced in Leping, Jiangxi. It was used in the late Ming "blank period" and the early period of Chenghua, Hongzhi and Zhengde. This material is elegant, bright and stable, especially making Chenghua blue and white ware famous.

Shiziqing, also known as Shiqing, is produced in Gao'an, Yifeng, and Shanggao in Jiangxi. When this material is used alone, the blue and white hair color is gray and even black, the second generation of the Ming and Qing dynasties generally use this material, and the official kiln is used to adjust and use it with the green.

Zhuming material is produced in Xuanwei, Huize, Yiliang and other counties in Yunnan, among which Xuanwei material is the best. The hair color of this material is bright and pure. Kangxi blue and white mostly use this material.

Su Ma Liqing, that is, Su Ni Ma Qing, Su Bo Mu Qing, Su Ni Bo Qing, etc. The origin of its name is a transliteration of the Persian word "Suleiman". The cobalt material is produced in the village of Quamsa in the Boska Mountains, and the villagers believe that a man named Suleiman discovered the cobalt material, hence the name of the material. Another theory is that Su Ni Ma Qing should be Su Ma Liqing, which is the transliteration of English smalt, which means dark blue or dark blue powder pigment for painting. This material belongs to the cobalt material of low manganese iron iron, so the blue and white color is thick and verdant, with "rust marks", commonly known as "tin light". Part of the blue and white of the Yuan Dynasty and the green materials used in the Yongle and Xuande official kilns of the Ming Dynasty are of this kind, and the production areas are all in ancient Persia or present-day Syria.

Chemical green material, that is, green material prepared with the chemical cobalt oxide. The hair color is purple-blue, pure, and intense, but frivolous and lacks adhesion, and the price is low. The blue and white ware made of this material lacks the beauty of natural green material.