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Mauser firearms, in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, can be said to occupy an important part of the rifle share. Pen × fun × Pavilion www. ｂｉｑｕｇｅ。 infoPlease search for the most complete! The fastest updated novel

And the first thing that is known is not the rifle that is not perfect and not very good in itself, but the relatively famous Mauser 1888 commission rifle.

This rifle can be said to be the precedent that really created a Mauser rifle to occupy an increasing proportion in the history of warfare.

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The Mauser 1888 Commission rifle was, in a sense, a product of arms competition, because until it was formally finalized, it was said that its original design was nothing more than a modified version of the rifle.

The most important sign of this statement is that the original design of the Mauser 1888 rifle did not use smokeless ****** cartridges.

France, which suffered a crushing defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, once again led the trend in the development of infantry weapons.

Because its first stereotyped firearm after the Franco-Prussian War, a weapon called the Lebel rifle, gradually became the main armament of the French army.

The Lebel (French: 86) or Lebel rifle (French: ) is a hand-operated bolt-action rifle introduced by France in 1886 and developed by Colonel Nicolas Lebel. The gun used Powder B, developed by Paul Vienna, and was the first and most successful smokeless gunpowder firearm in history. The advent of the Lebel rifle meant that those that used black powder became obsolete, and countries began to focus on the development and procurement of firearms that fired smokeless powder.

The Lebel rifle fires 8x50 mm all-enclosure rifle rounds with a load of 8 rounds and is fed by a built-in magazine. In addition to this, it can be equipped with a long-needle heavy saber bayonet for white-knuckle combat. In 1887, the Lebel rifle was installed as a standard rifle by the French army, and it participated in many foreign wars, including World War I and World War II.

During World War I, the French army intended to replace the Lebel rifle in large quantities with semi-automatic rifles. However, the soldiers generally believed that the gun was too bulky and long, and therefore not easy to operate and maintain in the trenches. Based on these problems, the French army has not been able to find a suitable replacement for the Lebel rifle. The rifle launched in 1936 was too slow to meet the needs of the army, so until France was occupied by Nazi Germany, the Lebel rifle was still the main rifle of the French army. A small number of rifles were captured and used by the Nazi German army, and were served in the army under the name (f).

Until the discontinuation of production in 1920, the Lebel rifle was produced by the French state-owned arsenal.

The two most famous firearms changes of the Lebel rifle are its use of smokeless gunpowder and metal bullets.

Smokeless gunpowder refers to gunpowder that produces less solid residue when it explodes.

One day in 1845, the Swiss chemist Schönbay accidentally knocked over a bottle filled with a mixture of nitric acid and sulphuric acid during an experiment. The solution flowed on the table, and when he couldn't find a rag, he hurried out and brought his wife's cotton apron to wipe the table. The apron was soaked in the solution, and it was drenched, and the bear was afraid that his wife would blame him when she saw it, so he went to the kitchen to dry the apron. Unexpectedly, when he approached the stove, he only heard a "plop" sound, and the apron was burned clean, without a trace of smoke or ash, and he was astonished. Afterwards, he carefully recalled what had happened, and was immediately overjoyed. He realized that he had synthesized new compounds that could be used to make explosives. For this reason, he repeated the experiment many times, and confirmed that the results were correct, so he named it "fire cotton", which later generations called nitrocellulose.

However, with the nitrocellulose invented by Schönbay, the gunpowder produced was very unstable, and there were many explosions in the powder magazine. In 1884, the French chemist and engineer P. Vielie made the world's first smokeless gunpowder.

Smokeless gunpowder burns with no residue and no smoke or only a small amount of smoke. The use of smokeless gunpowder can be recognized to increase the range of the projectile, improve the ballistic straightness and shooting accuracy. The birth of smokeless gunpowder paved the way for the development of ammunition. In the early 1890s, military rifle cartridges in European countries basically evolved from large-caliber black powder gun rounds to small-caliber smokeless powder gun bullets. The Maxim heavy machine gun also had practical value because of the use of smokeless gunpowder.

The main product of smokeless gunpowder is the famous nitrocellulose (of course, it is not necessarily nitrocellulose, but nitrocellulose has become synonymous with nitrocellulose for a long time afterward. ）。

Nitrocellulose is white or yellowish cotton wool and soluble in bingketones. The scientific name is cellulose nitrate, formerly known as nitrocellulose and nitrocellulose.

Later generations have a strict corresponding management system for nitrocellulose:

Nitrocellulose is a dangerous chemical with a hazardous characteristic: spontaneous ignition point 170C. Flash point 12.78c. Detonation rate: /s (13% nitrogen). Detonation gas volume (at 13.3% nitrogen). This product will burn and explode when exposed to sparks, high temperatures, oxidants and most organic amines (terephthalenedimethylamine, etc.).

If the temperature exceeds 40C, it can decompose and spontaneously combust. This product is dry and deteriorates for a long time, and it is easy to cause spontaneous combustion, and water or ethanol is generally added as a wetting agent. For example, after the emolectant volatilizes, it is prone to fire. If the nitrogen content is less than 12.5%, it is a first-class flammable solid.

Fire fighting measures: fire extinguishing with water or mist water. It is strictly forbidden to press the cap with sand to avoid violent explosions.

First aid: The patient should leave the scene immediately, be placed in a place of fresh air, and the injured person can be rinsed with clean water. In severe cases, they should be sent to the hospital for treatment immediately.

Storage and transportation instructions: packaging mark: (nitrogen content less than 12.5%) flammable solid. (nitrogen content of 12.5% or more) explosives. Packing: Glass bottle, wooden crate for external use, with non-combustible soft material pad stopper. or metal drums or cans, lined with plastic bags. Storage and transportation conditions: Store in a cool, ventilated warehouse, the temperature between the warehouses should not exceed 30C, away from fire and heat sources.

It is stored and transported in isolation from organic amines and oxidants. During the storage and transportation period, it is necessary to master the first-in-first-out, and the packaging damage should be repaired in time. The wetting agent should be checked frequently for drying, and the wetting agent should be increased if necessary. In order to evenly distribute the wetting, the package can be stored upside down after a certain period of storage (e.g., 5 months) (with the exception of reagents) and adjusted after a certain period of time. When handling, it should be handled with care to prevent the packaging from being damaged.

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The chemical that has a similar situation to nitrocellulose in terms of explosion is ********.

The Italian chemist Sobrero (~) said in his report on the results of his research that treating glycerin with nitric acid and sulfuric acid yielded a yellow, oily, transparent liquid, known as ********, "which can explode by vibration, and what it can be used for in the future, only future experiments can tell us." Professor Xining showed Nobel an experiment on an explosion in a hammer ******** in St. Petersburg, and said that if he could come up with a practical way to make it explode, it would be of great military use. This aroused great interest in the young Nobel. From then on, Nobel was obsessed with this and was determined to complete the invention.

After a long period of thinking and practice, Nobel realized that in order for a ******** to explode, it must be heated to the point of explosion (c) or impacted by gravity. The search for a safe detonating device was precisely the subject that Nobel set for himself. In May 1862, with a loud bang, the ditch splashed and the ground shook, and he discovered the principle of detonating the ******** for the first time. Causing a violent explosion ******** with a small amount of ordinary gunpowder is the "detonator" invented by Nobel.

To this end, in 1864 he obtained the first patent for the ******** detonating device in Sweden, completing his first major invention. In February 1868, the Swedish Society of Science awarded the Nobel father and son the Gold Medal for the long effort of the elder Nobel to make explosives from ********, and Alfred Nobel for making ******** explosives for the first time in industry.

At the time, mass production ******** fraught with risk. Nobel set out to improve the production process and strive to achieve safe production. Nobel was extremely saddened by the many explosions, especially the ******** explosion in the laboratory near Nobel's house in Stockholm, Sweden, on September 3, 1864, which killed all five people engaged in the experiment, including Nobel's youngest brother, Lu Dewei, whose father was also seriously injured. Yet Nobel still forged ahead and never flinched. He invented the cooling method of using cold water pipes to dissipate heat to produce ********, and designed the corresponding machine, which initially removed the obstacles to mass production.

The new "frying oil" can save a lot of manpower in blasting engineering, and it will soon be widely used. In addition, in order to promote his invention, Alfred Nobel personally went to various places to conduct experiments, so that his reputation spread far and wide, and more and more places asked for supplies. However, due to the ignorance of the danger of explosives at that time, serious liquid ******** explosions occurred in various places during long-distance transportation, and letters from the police poured into Nobel. He first rushed to California, the United States, where the sales volume is the largest, to try to make it locally to avoid the dangers of long-distance transportation, and then to eliminate interference from all sides, and concentrate on the study of safe transportation methods for ********. In 1867 he mixed porous diatomaceous earth from northern Germany with ******** to make two solid explosives: No. 1 and No. 2. This safety high explosive was quickly patented in Britain, France and Germany, and was used in mining, road construction, tunnel excavation and other construction. But the explosive power of this explosive is only three-quarters that of ********.

After the advent of diatomaceous earth explosives, the obstacles to the application of explosives in industry have been removed. At about the same time, Nobel also saw its shortcomings, namely that not only was the explosive power inferior to ********, but that when the explosives were damp or pressurized, there was still a danger that ******** could break out of the way. So Nobel began to experiment and develop a new variety that had both ******** explosive power and the safety performance of fierce explosives.

After numerous failures, in 1875 a solid cavity explosive and a colloidal explosive with excellent soft plasticity were introduced. It has a high explosive effect and is relatively cheap. It has more explosive power than pure ********, but it has greater stability, it will not explode when ignited, and it will not get damp when immersed in water. Colloidal explosives were soon widely used in blasting projects in Switzerland, France, and Italy.

Nobel was an insatiable man, and he devoted himself with great enthusiasm to the development of smokeless gunpowder for guns. With his vast knowledge and experience, he changed the recipe of celluloid in 1888 to replace the camphor with ******** to make granular smokeless gunpowder. He used this fast-burning, residue-free gunpowder as a firing charge for his guns. This is mixed smokeless explosives.

In addition to explosives and firearms technology, Nobel patents in chemistry. He also became a millionaire as a result. He hoped that his invention would contribute to human production, but it backfired, explosives were used in warfare, and he became a "death merchant" in the minds of some.

......

The granular smokeless gunpowder made of nitrocellulose and ******** can be said to have become two famous ****** and even bomb charge systems during the First World War.

It was not until these two explosive products were gradually replaced by another explosive that was more powerful and had more mature production conditions, that they gradually withdrew from the war as the scythe of death.

The official chemical name is **********, which is white or amaranth pale yellow needle-like crystals, odorless, hygroscopic. This product is a relatively safe explosive, which can withstand impact and friction, but any amount of sudden heat can cause an explosion. Moderate toxicity. It can invade the skin, respiratory tract, and digestive tract.

The main hazard is chronic poisoning. Local skin irritation produces dermatitis and jaxanthochromia. The ability to form methemoglobin is much smaller than that of aniline. The chronic effects are mainly manifested as toxic gastritis, toxic hepatitis, aplasia, anemia, and toxic cataracts.

The refined *** is very stable. Unlike nitroglycerin, it is insensitive to friction and vibration. Even if you are shot, you are not prone to explosions. Therefore, **** is required to start. It does not chemically react with metals or absorb moisture. As a result, it can be stored for many years. But it reacts strongly with alkalis to produce unstable compounds.

Each kilogram of ******* explosives produces 4.2 million joules of energy. It is worth noting that *** releases less energy than fats and **********sugars, but it releases energy very quickly, because it contains oxygen that acts as an accelerant and does not require oxygen from the atmosphere. Nowadays, explosions and energy release are often studied in units of "kilograms *******explosives" or "tons ******* explosives" to compare the energy of large-scale reactions such as explosions, earthquakes, and planetary impacts.

There is a misunderstanding in later generations, that is, for a long time, *** was believed to have been invented by Nobel, which caused a great misunderstanding. It is a very powerful and fairly safe explosive, and even if it is penetrated by a bullet, it generally does not burn and detonate. It began to be widely used in the early 20th century to load various ammunition and carry out explosions, gradually replacing picric acid. Before the end of World War II, *** has always been the best explosive with comprehensive performance, known as the "king of explosives". (To be continued.) )

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