Last time, I mentioned that after the Ming Dynasty leased "Macao" to "Franco", it not only relieved its pressure on coastal defense, but also added a "vassal state".

After the Portuguese rented Macao, Macao became a window for exchanges between China and the West, and some Chinese gradually mastered the Portuguese language in the process of contact with the Portuguese, and then became the "general affairs" of the Ming Dynasty government, passing on the word for the government, which belonged to a special establishment of "civil servants" in the Ming Dynasty.

In 1637, the English fleet of Wedel came to China. At that time, the "general secretary" used by the Ming Dynasty government was called Li Yerong, and his English name was Paulo No

ette。 He had been working as an interpreter for the Portuguese between Macao and Canton for six or seven years, but because the "Portuguese of Macao" looked down on him and traded him as a slave, he came to Canton from Macau, where he now lives with a high official of the province. These are from the History of Macau.

With the arrival of the Portuguese in large numbers, there was a large number of Chinese and foreign marriages, also known as "mixed blood" or "hybridization", which gave birth to many hybrid offspring.

These "half-breeds" learned one language from their father and another from their mother. As a result, these "mongrel generalists" gradually mastered the Western language in the long-term exchanges between China and the West, which illustrates the expansion of exchanges between the West and the West in the late Ming and early Qing dynasties.

However, the Ming Dynasty imposed various restrictions on foreign exchanges, especially the study of the Chinese language and script by foreigners.

Thus, an Englishman once wrote: "Chinese officials persistently refuse to provide assistance to foreigners in learning Chinese." If Chinese teach foreigners to learn Chinese, there will be many punishments. Due to many difficulties, Taipan managed to find a Chinese in Macau who was willing to teach Chinese.

However, he did not dare to come to the company's residence, and Taipan had to find him a small house far from the city for him to use. ”

Therefore, the language level of the ghost guy is not high, and the "foreign characters" he knows are only the names and prices of the goods and the slang and shallow literature and science, not special to the soldiers, the food and goods, Zhang Chizhi's ignorance. The Portuguese were the first to arrive in China and, between the late 16th and 18th centuries, had a near monopoly on trade between China and the West.

Therefore, a century after 1517, the European merchant ships that went to China were all Portuguese, and their language and writing were to some extent the lingua franca of the coast. Thus, in 1637, the British who came to China for the first time could no longer deal with the Chinese except through a "tongshi" who only knew Chinese and Portuguese. This made the Ming government not worry about the British spying on intelligence.

但是，随着“鸦片战争”和近代中国屈辱历史的开始，英国人在中、西贸易中后来居上，使得英语取代了葡萄牙语，成为了中、西交往的主要通用语言。 This shows that there is a competition between languages for "living space", and weak languages are eliminated.

However, it is worth noting that both Portuguese and English are simply a mixture of Chinese and foreign languages. For example, from the end of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th century, the language used in "tongshi" was first "Cantonese Portuguese" (Pidgi

Po

tuguese) is a simple combination of Portuguese and Chinese. And Pidgi

Language refers to the mixed language and jargon developed by people of different languages in business interactions.

And later "Cantonese English" (Ca

to

E

glish)专指在广州的中国人与西洋人之间用做进行商业交易和往来媒介的独特语言。 This English developed into "Pidgin" English (Pidgi) after the "Five Mouths of Commerce".

E

glish), which is Shanghainese and English.

At that time, Chinese believed that "although the Western language is separated, it has lived in China for a long time, and the Chinese have learned to it, and there are many people who can speak it, so it can be interpreted in Chinese." ”

所以，“通事”们巧妙地运用自己听惯了的外国音调，来成功的弥补了自己语言的不足，并依照自己的单音节词汇的表达方式，同时使用简单的中国话来表达他们的意思，并随意创造出了一种“杂交语言”。

There is no syntax or logical connection between the words of this "hybrid language", that is, "hybrid language", and it is not known which language branch of which language family to which it should belong, and it is different from the common writing of hiragana, hiragana, Japanese kanji, and Latin alphabet in "Japanese", and there is no system at all.

Therefore, this kind of mixed language is only a simple component of the "words" of two or more languages, and when communicating with each other, it is completely dependent on guessing the meaning of the words, not only from foreign languages, but also includes words from Chinese dialects, and is actually a temporary communication tool. 

The two incidents of the "fireman" Yasan and Li Yerong reflect that the Ming Dynasty was relatively loose in the management of "general affairs" and did not standardize the management of professional and skilled personnel in professional fields. After the initial contact with the Ming Dynasty and the foundation laid thereby, the Qing government incorporated "Tongshi" into the "public banking system" of its foreign policy, and began to "institutionalize" their management, which gradually extended to the "professional English" and "translator" level examinations in later generations.

In 1685, the Qing government ordered the "four-port trade", and set up a "general service" in each "open port", and the Guangdong customs was at the forefront of Sino-foreign exchanges and the most open center, so it also had the most complete management system for "general affairs", although there was no "training system" in later generations.

For example, all "general affairs" are issued "licenses" by Guangdong Customs, and they need to be guaranteed by "merchants". If there is collusion in the law, but the person who hires the bailout is asked. This approach draws on the "joint sitting method" and can reduce risk.

而对于负责澳门事务的“通事”，香山知县张甄陶《上制澳夷状》中记载：“澳夷言语不通，必须‘通事’传译，历来俱以在澳门行商传宣言语，该商人之鼻息，两相浃言语易从。 "This is conducive to the government's surveillance of the ghosts.

Later, "when the Tongzhi Definition Charter was established, two Tongzhi pacesetters were allocated to serve as generalists." ”负责澳门事务的“通事”还有另外一个来源，即在澳门娶葡萄牙女人为妻并居住在那里的中国人。

According to the "Chronicles of Macao", "he married a ghost girl who hijacked money and craftsmen and military servicemen, etc., and those who wore Tang costumes were ordered to go out of school, and those who wore fan clothes were ordered to change clothes to go out of school, and they all brought their children back to their hometowns on the day of the ghost girl's death." On the day of his return, he is not allowed to go abroad for trade or sailors to serve as soldiers, etc., and shall first be ordered to change his career to comprador general. While the Qing government systematically managed the "general affairs", it also punished the "general affairs" more severely than the Ming Dynasty.

If something goes wrong with the matter for which the "general secretary" is responsible, then the "general officer" will be punished by the government. Ma Shi records that the Dutch (red-haired) Taipan and the captain of the ship were to go to Whampoa, and the court officials and "generals" went to their merchant house and told them that the customs superintendent told them not to shoot (including "firing guns") while they were there.

However, the Dutch ignored it and spent most of Saturday afternoon and Sunday morning shooting to cheer up. 结果，等到荷兰人晚上回来后，便有人将他们的行动报告给“海关监督”，于是海关便将骑“通事”逮捕入狱。

对于在广州“通事”的具体人数，可根据英国人威廉·亨特写的一本自传曰《广州“番鬼”录》的书中有所简单记载：“主要的通事有‘老汤姆’、‘小汤姆’和‘兰仔’，他们组成了一个通事馆，来组织‘通事’的活动。 ”

It can be seen from this that there is a "general office" in Guangzhou and a "general general office" who is responsible for specific "general affairs". In the Jiaqing Dynasty's "Qing Dynasty Diplomatic Historical Materials", it is recorded that there are "generalists" Li Yao and Wu Yacheng, who were arrested after the incident because of collusion with foreigners, and both of them belonged to the "Lin Guang Tongshi Hall".

It can be seen from this that "Lin Guang" is the general leader of a "general office". "Guangdong Customs Due to the Red Hair Nuclear Bone Ship Murder Case Pan Zhishen and Other Instructions" mentions: "According to the 24th day of the first month of the fifth year of Jiaqing, according to Panyu County, on the 24th day of the first month of the fifth year of Jiaqing, according to Xu Cai, a citizen of Bei County, there was no intention of returning. ”但无论如何，当时的清政府也不会就此轻易放过他的。

According to Mr. Liang Jiabin's research, Xie Ao's original name was Xie Jiawu, and he was originally from Zhao'an County, Zhangzhou Prefecture, Fujian, alias "Fengxiang", and foreigners called him Goqua, that is, "Ao Guan". 他曾经是一名“通事”，在清朝嘉庆十一年(西元1806年)为“总通事”，但彼已有不欲再当“通事”，而愿承充洋行之意，于是同其弟嘉桐合办“东裕行”，做起了外贸生意，因为他觉得给官府办事危险。

马士的《东印度公司对华贸易编年史》中也有类似地记载：现在的首席通事是鳌官Goqua⋯⋯他的工作，足以证明对公司和公众都是一位勤恳和忠诚的人。 In 1810, when the East India Company decided on the distribution of goods, the name of the Ao official appeared. It can be seen from this that Xie Ao had already acted as a merchant in 1810, and was no longer the "general officer" of the Qing Dynasty government.

As for the cost of "general affairs", that is, the cost of translation for each foreign trade transaction, the amount varies. In the beginning, it was customary (customary) for the "generalists" to collect 1 per cent of the total value of the sale price from their employers, and 1 per cent of the total value of the goods from the merchants.

“通事”的报酬自西元1830年初以来就减少了很多⋯⋯通事费约惟200元（银元），作为通事的报酬，船长付给50或60元，每一艘英国东印度公司的船只付给75元，一艘港脚船付给173.5元，“通事”有时代理买办的事务，则再加50－100元，“港脚船”付给买办50元。 "Harbour vessels" are foreign smuggling merchant vessels that travel between India and China.

These are only the explicit incomes of the "generalists", which are much higher than the incomes of ordinary grassroots officials in the imperial court. In order to evade the relevant laws enacted by the Qing government, foreign merchants in Guangzhou often bribed "tongshi", so their actual income was much greater than this.

The Qing Dynasty's "general affairs" had a clear division of functions. In the public banking system, "traders are not allowed to employ civilians except for generalists and compradors." ”

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