readx;? The demise of the Southern Song Dynasty can be said to have dealt a profound blow to the inheritance of Chinese culture. Pen | fun | pavilion www. ｂｉｑｕｇｅ。 ｉｎｆｏ

But in a sense, the Yuan Empire, which destroyed the Southern Song Dynasty, itself played a role in the inheritance of the corresponding culture.

For example, in the political structure of the middle and late Yuan Empire, the Mongols were increasingly influenced by Chinese culture.

But this influence has not changed significantly for the Yuan Empire. Later generations thought that the sinicization carried out by the Yuan Empire was relatively deformed.

It's just that, as a certain point of view says,The closer the nation is to the farming nation,The greater the acceptance of sinicization.。 The Mongols themselves are nomadic peoples, and their acceptance of sinicization is naturally far less in-depth than that of ethnic groups based on fishing and hunting systems, such as Jurchen and Xianbei.

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After entering the Central Plains, the ancient Zhubei dynasties were influenced by the agricultural civilization of the Han nationality and embarked on the road of sinicization, which is a general historical trend. However, if we analyze it in detail, there is a big difference in the depth and speed of their influence on Han culture. As far as the Yuan Dynasty is concerned, its path to sinicization is particularly difficult and tortuous compared with the Northern Wei, Jin, Qing and other Northern dynasties that entered the interior, which can be summarized by the word "delay". The so-called "sluggishness" does not mean to stop moving, but to slow progress.

The steppe-based policy of the Great Mongolian State determined that the Mongol Great Khan only adopted indirect rule over the Han land, emphasizing looting and neglecting governance, resulting in a situation where "the Han land was not governed". After Kublai Khan ascended the throne, he changed his course, implemented Han law, and shifted the center of gravity of his rule from Mobei to Han, thus taking a key step on the road of sinicization. However, Kublai Khan's policy of implementing Han law was incomplete from the beginning.

With the establishment of the political system and the initial completion of the ritual and ritual system, the further implementation of the Chinese law and the bridging of cultural differences tended to stall. Since then, the process of sinicization of the Yuan generation,Although there is still development on individual issues,But on the whole, it has not gone beyond the circle drawn by Kublai Khan.。 A large number of old Mongolian systems that hindered social progress, because they involved the privileged interests of the aristocracy, were preserved for a long time under the guise of "ancestral narratives". The rulers' enthusiasm for external expansion and internal wealth has caused the vitality of society to be constantly hit by new blows before it has fully recovered.

All these made the Yuan Dynasty a unified dynasty without a "prosperous age" and a long time. Cultural deformity sinicization.

The Mongol aristocracy initially believed in polytheistic shamanism, but later converted to Lamaism, revered Tibetan monks as emperors, and worshipped them fervently, from whom the emperor himself was ordained.

In contrast, Confucianism had a much inferior status in the minds of the Mongol rulers. Due to the differences in social and cultural backgrounds, they find it difficult to understand the concepts and systems of Confucianism. Kublai Khan had some interest in Confucianism in his early years, but his understanding was rudimentary, and he later disagreed with Confucian ministers on financial issues. Until the eve of the death of the Yuan Dynasty, it can be said that Confucianism was never clearly established as the leading policy for governing the country, and lost its status as "sole respect". The use of language reflects a similar situation. Kublai Khan ordered Phags-pa to create a "new Mongolian character" in imitation of the Tibetan alphabet, which was promulgated all over the world, and all official documents must be written with it. In order to popularize this script, the imperial court set up a wide range of local Mongolian characters to teach.

A large number of Han Chinese entered Mongolian characters to study in order to obtain the step of advancement. Proficiency in the Mongolian language, taking Mongolian names, and having a tendency to Mongolize have become not uncommon cases in Han Chinese society. The influence of the Chinese language on the Mongol aristocracy was much weaker than that of the ruling ethnic groups of other northern dynasties. The Mongolian language was mainly used in the court.

Historical records record the dialogue between Kublai Khan and the Confucian minister Xu Heng and said: "Whenever the gentleman plays correctly, he chooses a good translator and then sees it." Or the translator does not understand what he says, or he feels that it is not right. ”

It can be seen that although Kublai Khan had a certain level of Chinese proficiency, he still could not completely detach himself from translation. As a ruler, he is so unfamiliar with the Chinese language, and the ruling effect can be imagined.

The foundation of Mongolian was arguably the most shallow writing system at that time.

Mongolian script is the script used to write Mongolian, mainly including the Uighur Mongolian script commonly used by the Mongolian ethnic group in the People's Republic of China, and the Cyrillic Mongolian script, which is mainly used in Mongolia.

The Mongolian script has changed dramatically since the Mongols began to record their own language. In the past, when the Mongolian language was not yet written, it was necessary to use the languages of other friendly neighbors to record the Mongolian language. The traditional Mongolian script was formed on the basis of the Uighur alphabet.

The early Mongolian alphabet was similar to the Uighur script in pronunciation, spelling, and lines, and was called Uighur Mongolian.

When the Mongols originated in the Troubled River, they originally had no written language.

In 1204, when Genghis Khan conquered the Naibarians, the Uighur Tata Tonga, the seal of the Naibarians, was arrested, but he still kept the seal of the state. Genghis Khan praised his loyalty to his country and ordered him to take charge of the Mongolian clerical seals, and ordered him to teach the princes and kings to write the Mongolian language. At this time, the Mongols began to use the Uighur alphabet to write the Mongolian language, which is known in scholars as the Uighur Mongolian script, and the Mongols began to use the Uighur alphabet to spell their language.

This writing system was the predecessor of the current Mongolian script. The pronunciation of the letters, spelling rules, and lines are similar to those of the Uighur script. No direct documentation of the Uighur Mongolian alphabet has yet been found.

According to the analysis of this written material by later generations, 19 letters were summarized. Of these, 5 represent vowels and 14 represent consonants. Depending on the position of each letter in the word, the writing changes slightly, and there are three variants of the beginning, the middle of the word, and the end of the word. When spelling, it is generally written in words, and the book is connected up and down.

However, sometimes a word can be written in two paragraphs. Spelling rules are not strict, and repeating is common. Word order is from top to bottom, and line order is from left to right. There are three types of punctuation: single dot (equivalent to a comma), double dot (equivalent to a period), and four dots (used at the end of a paragraph). The earliest surviving document written in Uighur Mongolian is the Yesongge Stele.

After Kublai Khan, the ancestor of the Yuan dynasty, promulgated the "New Mongolian Characters" (soon renamed "Mongolian characters", now commonly known as "Paspa"), the use of Uighur Mongolian was restricted for a time. In the latter part of the Yuan Dynasty, the Uighur Mongolian script became popular again. By the 17th century, the Uighur Mongolian script had developed into two languages, one in the current Mongolian script spoken in most parts of the Mongolian people, and the other in the Tot script spoken only in the Oirat dialect area.

Since the ancestor of the Yuan dynasty entrusted the national teacher Ba Si Pa to make another Eight Si Pa text, each with the "fear of the word" to call it, in order to show the difference. However, despite repeated bans, the Mongols at that time still preferred to use the Mongolian script, and the Phags-pa script switched to spelling other people's phonetics. Until the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, Emperor Yuan Shun returned to the north, and the new word was rarely used. The Mongols in Lingbei and other places still regard the Vultures alphabet as authentic.

In the 16th century, the Mongols embraced Buddhism and translated Buddhist scriptures widely, which popularized and stereotyped the Mongolian language. Therefore, the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was the Renaissance of Mongolia. The parts that were previously written in Mongolian were missing, but they were all improved. At this time, many Tibetan and Sanskrit words were introduced to replace the vocabulary used by the Mongols in the past. And in order to facilitate the representation of Tibetan and Sanskrit pronunciation, another variant alphabet was created. The improvement of the alphabet is mainly based on Aligari.

In 1587, the Karaqin translator Ayuhigush modified the old script and created his own Aligari script, which could express all Tibetan and Sanskrit phonetics, as well as consonant groups not found in Mongolian. At this time, some of the old sayings were discarded. Scholars refer to the written Mongolian script at this time as classical Mongolian.

From this point of view, as an emerging writing system, Mongolian has largely lacked a corresponding foundation for transmission.

From this point of view alone, even the Yuan Empire, during its rule in China, used the study of Mongolian as an assessment criterion for officials, but eventually lost the important premise of Mongolian's inheritance because it was difficult for more people to learn it:

At that time, in order to promote this kind of writing, the imperial court set up a wide range of local Mongolian characters to teach. A large number of Han Chinese entered Mongolian characters to study in order to obtain the step of advancement. Proficiency in the Mongolian language, taking Mongolian names, and having a tendency to Mongolize have become not uncommon cases in Han Chinese society. The grammar and lexical grammar of the Mongolian language also infiltrated into the Chinese language, forming a very distinctive "Yuan Dynasty vernacular" style.

In Chinese history, the Liao, Jin, and Qing dynasties all created their own scripts, but none of them had such a great influence on the Han region. The influence of the Chinese language on the Mongol aristocracy was much weaker than that of the ruling ethnic groups of other northern dynasties.

This also shows that a considerable part of Chinese culture has been passed down under the policies of some aspects of the Yuan Empire, but there is no doubt that the development of Chinese culture during the Yuan Empire was more stagnant.

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The reason why the sinicization of the Yuan Empire is "deformed" is that its national ruling system is certainly influenced by Chinese culture, but in some aspects, the Yuan Empire is not satisfied with ruling with Chinese culture, and chooses the corresponding pattern of coexistence of multiple systems. This method can be quite fatal for a country.

Because this is a hundred harms but no good for the cohesion of a country's national strength.

The political system of the Yuan Dynasty presents a distinct duality, that is, the so-called "practice of Han law and preserve national customs". Historian Meng Sen said: "Since the beginning of history, the Yuan Dynasty has been the most unsystematic, and it has been obtained and governed immediately, and the law of long-term peace and stability has been at a loss. ”

The so-called "no system" cannot be understood as no system, but should mean that its system has duality, which is quite different from the traditional code system of the Han dynasty, or the name is the same.

The duality of the Yuan Dynasty system was different from the form of the coexistence of officials in the north and south of the Liao Dynasty, and it was manifested in the "mixture of Mongolia and Han", and the systems of the Northern Wei, Jin, and Qing dynasties all had similar properties, but they were not as obvious as those of the Yuan Dynasty.

First of all, in terms of chronology and country name, in 1260, Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty, which was the beginning of Mongolia's adoption of the traditional chronology of the Central Plains Dynasty.

In 1271, that is, in the eighth year of the Yuan Dynasty, the name "Mongolia" was discontinued, and the founding name was "Dayuan", which is taken from the meaning of "Qianyuan" in the Book of Changes. At the same time, this practice also changed the old tradition of taking the birthplace as the country name that had been used by the previous major unified dynasties of China for thousands of years, and created a new era of auspicious words as the country name.

Secondly, inheriting the old traditions of the previous Han dynasty and the Liao and Jin dynasties, the bureaucracy of the centralized dynasty was established, and the system of provincial courts and platforms was implemented in the central government, that is, the central institutions were centered on the Zhongshu Province, the Privy Council and the Imperial Historical Observatory. In addition, the Xuanzheng Yuan was set up to be in charge of Buddhism, the Tongzheng Yuan was in charge of the post station, as well as the Hanlin Academy, the Jixian Academy, the Taichang Rite Academy, the Taishi Academy, the Tai Hospital, the Jiangzuo Yuan and other institutions.

The Mongol and Yuan governments implemented a policy of heavy agriculture. After the unification of the Yuan Dynasty, the Mongol rulers, under the influence of the highly developed agricultural economy in the Central Plains and the Jiangnan region, had to abandon the backward nomadic economy and exploitation methods to a certain extent, and began to attach importance to agriculture and carry out some measures to restore agricultural production. Yuan Shizu has repeatedly promulgated the prohibition that kings and nobles are not allowed to trample on the acres of land due to field hunting and are not allowed to change the acres of land into pasture.

In terms of legal system, Mongolia's backward form of social organization determines that its legal system is inevitably an untested foundation.

With the expansion of the area under the rule of Mongolia, problems such as social security and bureaucracy became increasingly serious. Genghis Khan's "zasa", which resembles the internal rules of the tribal alliance, cannot adapt to the complex social situation at all. At that time, the governor of the prefecture and county was greedy and rampant, the rich arbitrarily annexed land, and the phenomenon of ruffians and hooligans killing people and extorting goods was very serious.

In view of the social reality, Yelu Chucai put forward the "Eighteen Cheap Things" as a temporary law based on some legal principles of the Central Plains. Specific provisions were made on the problems of local officials doing errands without authorization, merchants embezzling official goods, Mongolian nobles not paying taxes, embezzling official goods, and death sentences. This made the social situation at that time somewhat better.

The level of civilization of the Mongols determined that they could not formulate laws that were in line with the Central Plains, and due to the deep degree of sinicization of the Jin Dynasty, its "Taihe Law" was a relatively perfect law and was more applicable to the Central Plains, so the Mongols were lazy and adopted the "Taihe Law" in the occupied Central Plains. Later, when the Yuan Dynasty was established, Kublai Khan barely re-enacted any laws, but changed them on the basis of the Taihe Law and promulgated the Yuan Dian Zhang, which in addition to the structure of Han law, also added legal provisions adapted to the ethnic hierarchy, and its provisions had obvious traces of the customary law of the Mongols.

Kublai Khan implemented his policy of sinicization through policies such as fixing the capital of the Han region, respecting Confucianism, and appointing Han bureaucrats. However, in addition to Kublai Khan's Han law, he also continued the policy of the Mongols. He continued to pursue the policy of ethnic discrimination, implemented the "four-class system," implemented the system of guarding the army, implemented the system of standing red, and implemented the system of household planning.

The Mongol system, the Han system, the Hui system, and the various systems at the same time caused extreme chaos in the social system, and the Yuan Dynasty died in less than a hundred years, which cannot be said to have nothing to do with Kublai Khan's conscious retention of a large number of old Mongols. The conservatism of the Mongol aristocracy in order to maintain their ruling rights and interests led to the fact that the political system of the Yuan generation always had the dual characteristics of both Chinese law and "national customs". (To be continued.) )

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